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Biology > Cells as the Basis of Life/Organisation of Living Things > Flashcards

Cells as the Basis of Life/Organisation of Living Things Flashcards

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1
Q

Two types of cells

A

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic

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2
Q

What do prokaryotic cells not have?

A
  • Nucleus
  • Membrane bound organelles
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3
Q

Capsule

A

Layer composed of complex carbohydrates outside the cell wall which protects the cell.

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4
Q

Pili/fimbriae

A

Hair like structures on the surface of some cells that allow them to adhere to nearby substances.

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5
Q

Flagella

A

Act like whip-like tails and are used by motile cells to move either towards or away from stimuli

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6
Q

Two types of prokaryotic cells

A

Bacteria, Archaea

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7
Q

What do Eukaryotes have that Prokaryotes do not?

A

Membrane-bound organelles

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8
Q

Selective permeability

A

Cell membrane allows only certain molecules/ions in or out of the cell.

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9
Q

The structure of the cell membrane allows…

A

Concentration of substances inside cells to remain constant and different from the external environment.

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10
Q
A
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11
Q

Gases needed by cells

A
  • Oxygen (O2)
  • Carbon dioxide (CO2)
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12
Q

Nutrients needed by cells

A
  • Sugars
  • Amino acids
  • Glycerol
  • Fatty acids
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13
Q

Main solvent in cells and what it dissolves

A

Water, dissolves nutrients and mineral salts

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14
Q

Waste substances that must leave cells

A
  • Urea
  • Uric acid
  • Excess CO2
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15
Q

Substances that leave the cell to coat the outside

A

Mucus

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16
Q

Substances that leave the cell to pass to other cells

A

Hormones

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17
Q

How does the fluid mosaic model describe the cell membrane?

A

Lipid bilayer with the ability to flow and change shape

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18
Q

Lipid bilayer

A

Double layer of lipids

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19
Q

Helps control exchange of materials between internal and external environments of the cell

A

Proteins and phospholipids

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20
Q

Permeablilty of the cell depends on…

A
  • Size of molecule
  • Lipid solubility
  • Electrical charge
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21
Q

Diffusion

A

Movement in and out of cells

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22
Q

Passive movement

A

Requires no energy input, includes the processes of diffusion and osmosis

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23
Q

Diffusion

A

Net movement of molecules from high to low concentration of a substance, until equilibrium is reached.

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24
Q

When is equilibrium reached during diffusion?

A

When the there is no net movement of molecules in either direction – molecules move equally

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25
Q

Diffusion can speed up or slow down depending on the temperature. This is because…

A

Heat increases the kinetic energy of particles, therefore the rate of diffusion increases

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26
Q

Which particles pass easily through the cell membrane by simple diffusion?

A

Small, uncharged particles e.g. CO2, O2

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27
Q

Which particles do not pass easily through the cell membrane and require facilitated diffusion?

A
  • Large molecules e.g. glucose, amino acids
  • Charged particles e.g. sodium & chloride ions
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28
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Diffusion of larger particles and molecules, assisted by carrier proteins and channel proteins.

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29
Q

Carrier proteins

A

Bind to molecules on one side of the membrane. They then change shape and release the substance on the other side.

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30
Q

Channel proteins

A

Proteins that form narrow passageways specific to the transport of particular ions.

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31
Q

Osmosis

A

Water molecules move from low to high solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

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32
Q

A smaller cell has a… SA:V, therefore a smaller size allows for… diffusion.

A

Higher, more efficient

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33
Q

A larger cell has a… SA:V, therefore a larger size allows for… diffusion.

A

Lower, less efficient

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34
Q

Types of endocytosis

A
  • Phagocytosis (cell eating)
  • Pinocytosis (cell drinking)
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35
Q

Endocytosis

A

Cell membrane changes shape to allow large particles to enter the cell

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36
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Cell engulfs solid particle. Also called cell eating.

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37
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Cell engulfs liquid particle. Also called cell drinking.

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38
Q

Exocytosis

A

Cell membrane fuses with a membrane-bound vesicle to transport substances out of the cell.

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39
Q
A
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40
Q

Transport of small, uncharged molecules e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide

A

Permeable - diffuse across membrane

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41
Q

Transport of lipid-soluble, non-polar molecules e.g. alcohol, chloroform, steroids

A

Permeable - diffuses across membrane

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42
Q

Transport of small polar molecules e.g. water and urea

A

Permeable/semi-permeable - uses channel proteins

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43
Q

Transport of small ions e.g. potassium ion, sodium ion and chloride ion

A

Non-permeable - uses channel proteins

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44
Q

Transport of large, polar, water soluble molecules e.g. amino acids and glucose

A

Non-permeable - uses carrier or channel proteins

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45
Q

Organic substances in cells

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Lipids
  • Nucleic acids
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46
Q

Elements in carbohydrates

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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47
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Simplest carbohydrate/sugar that can be active alone. e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose

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48
Q

Disaccharides

A

Double sugars consisting of 2 monosaccharides joined by condensation synthesis. e.g. sucrose, maltose, lactose

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49
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Polymers made of many monosaccharides formed by condensation reactions. e.g. starch, cellulose, glycogen

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50
Q

Elements in proteins

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes sulfur

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51
Q

Basic unit of proteins

A

Amino acids, joined by peptide bonds to form polypeptides

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52
Q

How many types of amino acids are there?

A

Over 20

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53
Q

What determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein?

A

DNA

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54
Q

Elements in lipids

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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55
Q

Elements in nucleic acids

A

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

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56
Q

Inorganic substances in cells

A
  • Water
  • Gases
  • Mineral salts
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57
Q

Function of water in the cell

A
  • 90% of protoplasm
  • Transport medium
  • Solvent for molecules
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58
Q

Protoplasm

A

cytoplasm + nucleus

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59
Q

Function of gases in cells (CO2 and O2)

A
  • Dissolved in protoplasm
  • Produced in chloroplasts & mitochondria
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60
Q

Function of CO2 in cells

A

Used in photosynthesis (reactant), released in respiration (product)

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61
Q

Function of O2 in cells

A

Used in respiration (reactant), released in photosynthesis (product)

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62
Q

Function of mineral salts in the cell

A
  • Dissolved in cytoplasm & vacuoles
  • Assist chemical reactions, synthesis & water balance
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63
Q

Photosynthesis reaction

A

6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen

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64
Q

Light-dependent phase

A
  1. Chlorophyll in chloroplast traps light energy
  2. H2O split into H2 and O2
  3. O2 released
  4. H2 carried to next phase
  5. ATP formed
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65
Q

Light-independent phase

A
  1. In stroma of chloroplast
  2. CO2 combined with H2 ions (from 1st phase)
  3. No light required - ATP provides energy
  4. Glucose converted into carbohydrates/lipids/proteins
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66
Q

Equation for aerobic cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

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67
Q

Enzymes

A

Protein molecules that control cell metabolism.
Act as biological catalysts - accelerate the chemical reactions that take place in cells.

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68
Q

Metabolism

A

Sum of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organism

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69
Q

Surface of an enzyme with a specific shape to which a substrate can bind

A

Active site

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70
Q

Reactants in a chemical reaction involving an enzyme

A

Substrates

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71
Q

What is formed when a substrate and an enzyme bond?

A

Substrate-enzyme complex

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72
Q

An enzyme remains… throughout a reaction.

A

Unchanged

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73
Q

Lock and key enzyme model

A
  • Active site does not change
  • Substrate molecule is shaped to fit the exact shape of the active site
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74
Q

Induced fit enzyme model (currently accepted)

A
  • Substrate and active site not fixed shapes
  • Enzyme changes shape slightly
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75
Q

Effect of temperature on enzymes

A

As temperature increases, rate of reaction increases until optimal conditions are reached. At this point, enzyme activity is at its maximum level. At temperatures outside optimal conditions, enzyme activity is slower.

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76
Q

Effect of pH on enzymes

A

For most enzymes, optimal pH conditions are neutral, but some (e.g. digestive enzymes) function in acidic or alkaline conditions. At pH levels outside optimal conditions, enzyme activity is slower.

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77
Q

Effect of substrate concentration on enzymes

A

The higher the substrate concentration, the greater the rate of enzyme reaction, until a saturation point where all available enzymes are being used.

78
Q

Steps of cellular respiration

A
  1. Glycolysis
    1.5. Intermediate step
    2.Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
    3.Electron transport cycle
79
Q

Glycolysis (cellular respiration step 1)

A
  • In cytoplasm
  • Anaerobic
  • Glucose converted to pyruvate
80
Q

Net yield of glycolysis (cellular respiration step 1)

A
  • 2 pyruvate
  • 2 ATP
  • 2 NADH
81
Q

Intermediate (cellular respiration step 1.5)

A
  • 2 pyruvate transported to mitochondria via active transport
  • Outer membrane -> intermembrane space -> inner membrane -> mitochondrial matrix
  • Pyruvate converted to Acetyl CoA
82
Q

Products of intermediate (cellular respiration step 1.5)

A
  • CO2 released
  • 2 NADH produced
83
Q

Krebs cycle (cellular respiration step 2)

A
  • Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
  • Aerobic
  • CO2 released
84
Q

Net yield of krebs cycle (cellular respiration step 2)

A
  • 2 ATP
  • 2 NADH
  • 2 FADH
85
Q

Electron transport cycle (cellular respiration step 3)

A
  • Aerobic
  • Mitochondrial matrix -> inner membrane -> intermembrane space
  • Electrons transferred from NADH & FADH to protein complex & electron carriers
  • Electrons used to generate proton gradient
  • Protons move down gradient (ATP synthase)
  • ADP -> ATP
86
Q
A
87
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate

88
Q

ADP

A

Adenosine diphosphate

89
Q

4 types of tissue

A
  • Epithelial
  • Connective
  • Nervous
  • Muscle
90
Q

Epithelial tissue

A
  • Covers body surfaces
  • Protects organs
  • Densely packed cells that occur in sheets and layers
  • e.g. skin, organ surfaces
91
Q

Connective tissue

A
  • Varies in form and function
  • Made of protein fibres - collagen & elastin
  • Provides support
  • Binds things together
  • Protects against damage
  • E.g. cartilage, bone, blood
92
Q

Nervous tissue

A
  • Specialised for communication throughout the body
  • Made of nerve cells (neurons)
  • Neurons made of dendrites for inc. surface area, and axon for passing messages
93
Q

Muscle tissue

A
  • Contains muscle fibres
  • 3 types - skeletal, cardiac, smooth
  • Contain proteins actin & myosin, which interact to cause cells to lengthen and shorten
94
Q

Autotrophs

A
  • Supply own food & nutrients
  • Do not consume other organisms
95
Q

Photoautotrophs

A

Use CO2 and sunlight as an energy source for photosynthesis

96
Q

Chemoautotrophs

A

Use CO2 as a source of carbon and energy from oxidising inorganic substances

97
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Depend on other organisms as sources of food and nutrients

98
Q

Dermal tissue (plants)

A
  • Protective coating of plant organs
  • e.g. epidermis
99
Q

Vascular tissue (plants)

A
  • Xylem & Phloem
  • Transports water & organic molecules
100
Q

Ground tissue (plants)

A
  • Pith = internal to vascular tissue
  • Cortex = external to vascular tissue
101
Q

Monocotyledons

A
  • Seeds have single cotyledon
  • Fibrous root systems
  • Parallel veins
  • Flower = 3 (or multiple of)
102
Q

Dicotyledons

A
  • Seeds have pairs of cotyledons
  • Tap root system
  • Net-like veins
  • Flower = 4 or 5 (or multiple of)
103
Q

RNA

A
  • Ribonucleic acid
  • Sugar = ribose
  • Biomolecule = nucleic acid
  • Found inside and outside the nucleus
  • One strand of nucleotides
104
Q

RNA bases

A
  • Adenine
  • Uracil
  • Guanine
  • Cytosine
105
Q

Nucleotide

A
  • Monomer (building block) for nucleic acids
  • Phosphate, sugar and nitrogenous base
106
Q

2 steps in polypeptide/protein synthesis

A
  • Transcription
  • Translation
107
Q

Transcription

A
  • In nucleus
  • RNA Polymerase (enzyme) connects RNA bases to complimentary DNA
  • Forms mRNA
108
Q

mRNA

A

messenger RNA

109
Q

tRNA

A
  • transfer RNA
  • Exists in cytoplasm
  • Carries amino acids to ribosome
110
Q

rRNA

A
  • ribosomal RNA
  • Material that makes up ribosomes
111
Q

Translation

A
  • mRNA tells tRNA which amino acids to transfer to ribosome
  • tRNA connect with complementary mRNA bases
  • tRNA reads bases in threes (codon)
112
Q

Codon

A

Group of 3 mRNA bases

113
Q

Anticodon

A

Group of 3 tRNA bases

114
Q

Stop codon

A

Does not code for an amino acid. Instead tells tRNA that protein building is finished.

115
Q

Stomata

A
  • Pores of the leaf that allow gases to move in and out
  • Open and close to balance gas exchange without water loss
116
Q

Guard cells

A
  • Bean-shaped cells that contain chloroplasts.
  • Guard stomata
117
Q

Open stomata

A
  • Gases able to diffuse
  • Water can be lost
118
Q

Closed stomata

A
  • No gases transported
  • No water loss
119
Q

Effect of light of stomata

A
  • Open at dawn
  • Close at night
120
Q

Effect of temperature on stomata

A
  • Open in low temp
  • Closed in high temp to prevent loss of water vapour
121
Q

Effect of CO2 concentration on stomata

A
  • Increased concentration = closed
  • Decreased concentration = open
122
Q

Effect of humidity on stomata

A

High humidity = open (less water evaporating)
Low humidity = open (more water evaporating)

123
Q

Lenticels

A
  • Pores for gas exchange in woody parts of plants e.g tree branches
  • Slow diffusion process
124
Q

Common characteristics of gas exchange (respiratory) structures in animals

A
  • Large surface area
  • Thin surface
  • Close to transport system (e.g. blood)
  • Greater concentration of required gas on one side
125
Q

Gas exchange structures in humans

A
  • Lungs
  • Alveoli
126
Q

Gas exchange structures in fish

A
  • Gills
  • Gill slits
127
Q

Gas exchange structures in insects

A
  1. Spiracles/breathing pores
  2. Tracheal tubes
  3. Chitin
  4. Tracheoles
128
Q

Gas exchange structures in frogs

A
  • Lungs
  • Skin
129
Q

Hemolyph

A

Both blood and intersitial fluid

130
Q

Arteries

A

Transport blood away from the heart. Transport oxygenated blood in systemic circulation.

131
Q

```

Veins

A

Transport blood toward the heart. Carry deoxygenated blood in systemic circuation.

132
Q

Capillaries

A
  • Surround cells and tissues to deliver & absorb O2, nutrients & other substances.
  • Connect branches of arteries to branches of veins.
133
Q

Transport of deoxygenated blood

A
  1. From superior & inferior vena cava
  2. Right atrium
  3. Right AV (tricuspid) valve
  4. Right ventricle
  5. Semilunar valve
  6. Pulmonary artery
  7. Lungs
134
Q

Transport of oxygenated blood

A
  1. From lungs
  2. Left atrium
  3. Left AV valve
  4. Left ventricle
  5. Aorta
  6. Arteries
135
Q

Xylem tissue

A
  • Transports water & mineral ions
  • Roots to stem & leaves
  • 1 direction
  • Structure includes tracheids and vessels, with cells such as parenchyma and fibres in between
136
Q

Theory of movement in the xylem

A

Transpiration-cohesion-tension theory

137
Q

Cohesion

A

Attraction of water molecules to each other due to polarity.

138
Q

Adhesion

A

Forces between water molecules and xylem vessel walls cause water to rise. Narrower vessel = higher water will rise.

139
Q

Root pressure

A

Absorbed substances move across root into xylem. Continual influx of absorbed substances pushes those already present upwards.

140
Q

Phloem tissue

A
  • Transports sugars & photosynthesis products
  • Leaves to plant
  • Multiple directions
141
Q

2 types of phloem cells

A
  • Sieve tube cells
  • Companion cells
142
Q

Theory of movement in the phloem

A

Source to sink theory

143
Q

Source to sink theory

A
  • Movement from high to low pressure regions formed in phloem
  • High pressure region = close to sucrose production (source)
  • Low pressure region = where sucrose is required (sink)
144
Q

Source to sink - source

A

High pressure region that is close to sucrose production

145
Q

Source to sink - sink

A

Low pressure region that is where sucrose is required

146
Q

Nucleus

A
  • Contains genetic information in the form of chromosomes, which are made of DNA
  • Controls the rest of the cell
147
Q

Nuclear membrane

A
  • Surrounds the nucleus
  • Has small gaps called nuclear pores
148
Q

Nucleolus

A
  • Found in nucleus
  • Made of proteins and RNA
  • Where ribosomes are made
149
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • Made of proteins and rRNA
  • Not membrane-bound
  • Make proteins
  • In cytoplasm/connected to ER
150
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A
  • Connected to nucleus
  • Network of membranes
  • Creates tunnel for substances to move
  • 2 types - rough ER & smooth ER
151
Q

Rough ER

A

Ribosomes attached, which make proteins to be processed & modified

152
Q

Smooth ER

A
  • No ribosomes attached
  • Makes lipids
153
Q

Golgi body

A
  • Made of stacked membrane sacs that are not interconnected
  • Processes & packages substances made by the cell
  • Membrane forms vesicle
154
Q

Vesicles

A
  • Formed by golgi body
  • Transports substances within or outside the cell
155
Q

Lysosomes

A
  • Membrane-bound sacs
  • Contain digestive enzymes needed to break down substances
156
Q

Chloroplasts

A
  • Only found in plant cells
  • Have…
    Double membrane
    Own DNA
    Chlorophyll
  • Capture light energy and perform photosynthesis**
157
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Found in plant and animal cells
  • Have…
    Double membrane
    Own DNA
  • Performs respiration to create ATP
  • Number depends on how much energy cell needs
158
Q

Cell membrane

A
  • Separates cell contents from outside environment
  • Holds organelles together & protects them
  • Semi-permeable to regulate substances in & out
159
Q

Cell wall

A
  • Found in plant, fungi & some prokaryotic cells
  • Surrounds cell - outside membrane
  • Structural strength & protection
160
Q

Cytoplasm

A
  • Fluid that organelles are suspended in
  • Gives cell volume & shape
161
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Network of…
* Microtubules
* Microfilaments
* Intermediate filaments

162
Q

Centrioles

A
  • Pair of small, cylindrical structures made of microtubules
  • Involved in cell division
  • Pull chromosomes apart
163
Q

Vacuole

A
  • Contains fluid (water + sugar + salt)
  • Stores substances for cell use
  • Gives plant cells structural support (turgor pressure)
164
Q

Vacuole in animal cells

A
  • Small
  • Temporary
  • Number varies
165
Q

Vacuole in plant cells

A
  • Large
  • Permanent
  • Usually only one
166
Q

Microscope magnification levels

A
  • Eyepiece = 10x
  • Objective lenses = 4x, 10x, 40x
167
Q

Total magnification formula

A

eyepiece mag x objective lens mag

168
Q

Field of view formula

A

eyepiece (mm)
…………………………
Objective mag

169
Q

Convert mm to μm

A

x100

170
Q
A
171
Q

…… head = hydro……

A

Phosphate, hydrophilic

172
Q

…… tail = hydro…..

A

Lipid, hydrophobic

173
Q

Extracellular

A

Outside cell membrane

174
Q

Intracellular

A

Inside cell membrane

175
Q

Types of proteins in the phospholipid bilayer

A
  • Receptor
  • Transport
  • Recognition
  • Adhesion
176
Q

DNA bases

A
  • adenine
  • thymine
  • cytosine
  • guanine
177
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid

178
Q

Biological organisation of living things from lowest to highest order

A
  1. Atom
  2. Molecule
  3. Organelle
  4. Cell
  5. Tissue
  6. Organ
  7. System
  8. Organism
  9. Population
  10. Community
  11. Ecosystem
  12. Biosphere
179
Q

Which vessels transport blood from the heart to the body?

A

Arteries

180
Q

Oxygen is transported in the blood attached to…

A

Haemoglobin

181
Q

Order of water transport through plants

A

Root > stem > leaf

182
Q

Which plant vessels transport sugars?

A

Phloem

183
Q

Xylem vessels are strengthened by which spiral structure?

A

Lignin

184
Q

Reactants of photosynthesis

A

CO2 + H2O
carbon dioxide and water

185
Q

Products of photosynthesis

A

C6H12O6 + O2
glucose and oxygen

186
Q

Reactants of cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + O2
glucose and oxygen

187
Q

Products of cellular respiration

A

CO2 + H2O
carbon dioxide and water

188
Q

Photosynthesis is carried out by

A
  • Plants
  • Algae
  • Cyanobacteria
189
Q

What is a specialised cell?

A

A cell that performs a particular function

190
Q

What is the specialised function of red blood cells?

A

Carry O2 in the blood

191
Q

Which cells can specialise into any cell type?

A

Stem cells

192
Q
A

Biology (4 decks)

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