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Cells and Tissues Flashcards

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1
Q

Define the term tumour

A

An abnormal mass of tissue that forms when cells divide more than they should

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2
Q

Define the term neoplasia

A

An abnormal growth of cells that may develop into a tumour

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3
Q

Define the term malignant

A

Cells grow in an uncontrolled way and can have the ability to invade local tissues and spread to distant sites via the blood and lymph system

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4
Q

Define the term benign

A

Not malignant

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5
Q

Define the term cancer

A

A malignant growth or a tumour resulting from an uncontrolled division of cells

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6
Q

Why do HeLa cells grow so fast?

A

They are self sufficient in growth signals
They are insensitive to anti-growth signals
They evade apoptosis
Sustained angiogenesis
Limitless replicative potential
Tissue invasion and metastasis

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7
Q

How does cancer affect respiration in a cell?

A

The cancer favours anaerobic respiration even in the presence of oxygen

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8
Q

What other cells make up the tumour micro environment?

A

Cancer associated fibroblast
Endothelial cells
Pericytes
Cancer stem cells
Immune inflammatory cells

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9
Q

What are the steps in carcinogenesis?

A

Cell with genetic mutation
Hyperplasia
Dysplasia
In situ cancer
Invasive cancer

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10
Q

Name the 7 most common carcinogens

A

Tobacco smoking
Excess body weight
Alcohol
UV light
Diet
Cancer causing pathogens
Physical inactivity

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11
Q

Name the organelle…
-membrane bound
-most cells have one
-holds most of the cells genetic material

A

Nucleus

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12
Q

What in the nucleus provides structural support for the genetic material?

A

Nuclear lamina

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13
Q

What is the nucleus role in disease?

A

Autoantibodies in lupus attack the nucleus

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14
Q

Name the organelle…
-phospholipid bilayer
-contains many pores to regulate passage of molecules

A

Nuclear envelope

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15
Q

What are the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope connected to?

A

Inner connected to lamin proteins of the nucleus
Outer connected to endoplasmic reticulum

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16
Q

Name the organelle…
-located inside nucleus
-Made of proteins and rDNA
-site of ribosome production

A

Nucleolus

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17
Q

What is the nucleolus role in diagnosing disease?

A

The appearance of the nucleolus us used to grade cancer by pathologists

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18
Q

Name the organelle…
-site of protein synthesis
-composed of 2 subunits

A

ribosome

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19
Q

What are the roles of each of the subunits of a ribosome?

A

Large subunit binds tRNA
Small subunit binds mRNA

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20
Q

What is the role of ribosomes in treating disease?

A

The fact that eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes have a different structure makes them a target for antibiotics

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21
Q

What are the functions of free and bound ribosomes?

A

Free ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell
Bound ribosomes make proteins for export or for membrane surface

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22
Q

Name the organelle…
-Continuous with nuclear membrane and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
-site of protein synthesis
-site of protein modification

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

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23
Q

Name the organelle…
-originates from and stays continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum
-no ribosomes on the surface

A

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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24
Q

What does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesise?

A

Lipids
cholesterol
Steroid hormones
Phospholipids

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25
Name the organelle… -helps process and package proteins and lipids made by endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
26
Describe protein processing and secretion
1. ribosomes produce proteins on RER 2. Transport vesicles containing the proteins are pinched off the RER 3. Vesicles fuse with Golgi membrane and release proteins inside 4. Proteins are processed and stored in Golgi 5. Vesicles containing proteins are pinched off from Golgi 6. Exocytosis
27
Name the organelle… -degrades unneeded or damaged proteins -very specific -protein complex
Proteasomes
28
How does the proteasome degrade unneeded or damaged proteins?
Using the ubiquitin proteasome system 1. Tag protein with ubiquitin 2. Proteolysis by proteasome
29
Name the organelle… -membrane bound spheres full of hydrolases -have a low pH -bud from Golgi -the recycling centre
Lysosomes
30
What are the functions of the lysosome?
Recycling old organelles into monomers Apoptosis Destroy micro organisms so abundant in macrophages
31
Name the organelle… -membrane bound -full of enzymes (oxidases) -originate from endoplasmic reticulum
Peroxisomes
32
What are the functions of peroxisomes?
Scavenge free radicals Lipid metabolism
33
What three components make up the cytoskeleton?
Microtubules Intermediate filaments Microfilaments
34
Which part of the cytoskeleton has the function… -maintaining cell shape -cell motility -chromosome movements in cell division -organelle movements
Microtubules
35
Which part of the cytoskeleton has the function… -maintaining cell shape -anchorage of nucleus and other organelles -formation of nuclear lamina
Intermediate filaments
36
Which part of the cytoskeleton has the function… -maintaining cell shape -muscle contraction -cell motility -cell division -changes in cell shape
Microfilaments
37
Name the organelle… -double membrane -matrix and cristae -site of aerobic respiration
Mitochondria
38
What is the role of mitochondria in disease?
Mutations in the mitochondrial genes cause rare but devastating mitochondrial disorders
39
What are the features of mitochondrial diseases?
Occur when mutations are inherited in mitochondrial DNA Rare and severe Can only be inherited from the mother
40
What are the end products of aerobic respiration?
Water CO2 36 ATP
41
What are the end products of anaerobic respiration?
Lactic acid 2 ATP
42
What is the difference between cytosol and cytoplasm?
Cytosol is just the fluid filling the cell and embedding the other organelles Cytoplasm is the cytosol + all organelles - nucleus
43
What is the protoplasm?
Cytosol + all organelles (including nucleus)
44
What do you call a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit?
Tissue
45
What do you call a collection of tissues that together perform a certain specific function?
Organelle
46
What do you call the embryological tissue from which all types of supporting elements are derived?
Mesenchyme
47
What do you call the cells and tissues that support and give structure to organs, glands and other tissues in the body?
Stroma
48
What is the stroma made up of?
Connective tissue Blood vessels Lymphatic vessels Nerves
49
What is the difference between the parenchyma and the stroma?
In tissues and organs, parenchyma is the functionally specialised cells and stroma are the less specialised supporting tissue
50
What do haematoxylin and eosin stain?
Haematoxylin stains acidic structures purple/blue (e.g. nucleus) Eosin stains basic structures red/pink (e.g. cytoplasmic proteins)
51
What is the epithelia?
Diverse group of tissues that include surface epithelia and solid organs
52
what is surface epithelia>
Surface epithelia cover or line all body surfaces, cavities and tubes
53
What is the function of epithelia?
Form a protective barrier Regulate exchange of molecules Synthesis and secretion of glandular products
54
What are the features of epithelia?
Tightly packed cells Polarity Anchored to basement membrane Lack blood cells Supported by laminate propia (connective tissue) High ability for regeneration Connected by intercellular junctions which maintain integrity and allow communication between cells
55
What types of cell to cell adhesion are there?
Tight junction Adherens junction Desmosome Gap junction
56
What types of cell to matrix adhesion are there?
Focal adhesion Hemidesmosome
57
What is bullous pemphigold and what causes it?
Autoimmune blistering skin disorder Patients present with blisters and itching Autoantibodies cause release of cytokines which produce an inflammatory reaction that destroys the hemidesmosomes Causes subepidermal blisters
58
What is pemphigus vulgaris and what causes it?
Autoimmune condition Caused by autoantibodies against epidermal antigens Patients present with thick crusty or blistered skin
59
What does stratified and pseudostratified mean when it comes to describing epithelium?
Stratifies is when there are multiple layers of cells Pseudostratified means there’s a single layer but the cells are all different heights giving a stratifies appearance
60
What are some site specific adaptations of the skin?
Stratified squamous epithelium Provides protection against abrasions and water loss Epithelium is keratinised (cells lose their nucleus and cytoplasm for keratin making them waterproof)
61
What are some site specific adaptations of the GI tract?
Ciliated columnar epithelium Cilia on surface
62
What is a site specific adaptations of the urinary tract?
Specialised stratified lining that is an impermeable barrier to water and ions
63
What is a site specific adaptations of the bladder wall?
Able to stretch to increase volume when the bladder fills with urine Known as the transitional epithelium
64
Name and describe this mesenchymal tissue (Insert fatty tissue pic)
Fatty tissue Composed of adipocytes
65
Name and describe this mesenchymal tissue (Insert bone tissue pic)
Three cell types -osteoblasts -osteoclasts -osteocytes Types of bones -woven -lamellar -cortical -trabecular
66
Name and describe this mesenchymal tissue (Insert tendon pic)
Tendon Dense connective tissue structure Made of collagen fibres, elastin, glycoproteins, proteoglycans and fibroblast cells
67
Name and describe this mesenchymal tissue (Insert cartilage picture)
Cartilage Composed mostly of collagen Types include… - Hyaline cartilage - Fibrocartilage - Elastic cartilage
68
Name and describe this mesenchymal tissue (Insert muscle pic)
Muscle Types include - skeletal - cardiac - smooth
69
Marfan syndrome affects mesenchymal tissue. In what way does it do this?
Genetic disorder Affects connective tissue Leads to abnormalities in the skeleton, heart and eyes
70
Name three diseases arising from abnormal mesenchymal tissues
Marfan syndrome (connective tissue) Lipoma (benign tumour of fatty tissue causing soft masses under the skin) Angiosarcoma (aggressive cancer that forms from lining of blood/lymph vessels)
71
What type of adult cell am I describing? - very high turnover - bowel, skin, bone marrow
Labile cells
72
What type of adult cell am I describing? - good ability to regenerate but lower turnover - hepatocytes, bone
Stable cells
73
What type of adult cell am I describing? - once it is gone, its gone and cell loss is replaced by scarring - nerve cells, cardiac muscle cells, skeletal muscle cells
Permanent
74
What is proliferation?
Growth, repair of damage, replacing tired cells (Basically just cells dividing)
75
Describe the steps in the cell cycle
G1 - cell growth S phase - DNA synthesis G2 - More growth Mitosis - cell divides its DNA and cytoplasm
76
How many chromosomes are present at the end of interphase?
46
77
What’s the process by which 50 million sperm are made per day?
Spermatogenesis
78
What is different about female meiosis?
Meiosis 2 doesn’t start until triggered by entry of sperm
79
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death that doesn’t release harmful products or cause inflammation Can be triggered by intracellular and extracellular signals
80
What is necrosis?
Unintended cell death as a response to injury
81
What makes necrosis so bad?
Spillage of cell contents leads to activation of inflammatory pathways
82
What are the 4 symptoms of necrosis and what do they mean?
Rubor = redness Calor = heat Tumor = swelling Dolor = pain
83
What are the 5 types of necrosis?
Coagulative Liquefactive Caseous Gangrene Fat
84
What is coagulative necrosis?
Caused by Ischaemia (lack of blood supply) Leads to lack of oxygen to tissues Can cause big heart attacks of even rupture the walls of the heart
85
What is liquefactive necrosis?
When the dying cells have little supporting tissue so liquefy leaving cavities
86
What is caseous necrosis?
Dead tissue is walled off Cells are broken down but not eaten by phagocytes so clump together
87
What is gangrene necrosis?
Tissues rot They go black from iron deposition from degrading haemoglobin
88
What is fat necrosis?
Secondary damage to fat from internal or external cause
89
Why are these cells called HeLa cells? INSERT PIC
Due to the case of Henrietta Lacks
90
What is the difference between a somatic and germline mutation?
INSERT PIC

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