Cell pathology theme 1 options

Question 1

Karyolysis

Answer 1

Nuclear fading

Question 2

Karyorrhexis

Answer 2

Nuclear fragmentation

Question 3

Atrophy

Answer 3

Atrophy is a decrease in the size of cells, tissues, or organs, often leading to a loss of function. Lack of use of striated muscles, which often occurs in patients who are bedbound, leads to shrinkage in the size of myocytes and to loss of muscle bulk. This is known as ‘disuse atrophy’.

Question 4

Metaplasia

Answer 4

Metaplasia is a change in cell type from one fully differentiated form to another fully differentiated form. It is usually a protective response to chronic irritation or cell damage, the new cell type being more able to withstand the irritating agent than the original

Question 5

Dysplasia

Answer 5

The term ‘dysplasia’ literally means abnormal growth, but it is most often used to describe failure of normal maturation of an epithelium, with partial expression of a neoplastic phenotype.

Question 6

Apoptosis

Answer 6

the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism’s growth or development.

Question 7

Hyperplasia

Answer 7

Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells in a given cell population. In contrast, hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells without an increase in number

Hyperplasia is usually hormonally driven, while hypertrophy occurs in response to an increased workload. Prostatic enlargement in men is common with increasing age. The growth is hormonally driven and involves an increase in cell number rather than cell size. The process is therefore hyperplasia rather than hypertrophy.

Question 8

Hypertrophy

Answer 8

As described above, hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells without an increase in number and usually occurs in response to an increased workload.

In patients with hypertension, the heart has to pump against increased vascular resistance and its workload is therefore increased. The consequent increase in size of the cardiac myocytes leads to left ventricular hypertrophy and enlargement of the heart.

Question 9

Lipofuscin

Answer 9

Intracellular accumulation of yellow-brown pigment, seen in aging cells

Question 10

Hypertrophic scar

Answer 10

The accumulation of excessive amounts of collagen can give rise to a raised scar known as a ‘hypertrophic scar’. Hypertrophic scars occur when there is an overproduction of collagen during the wound healing process. This can happen due to various reasons such as genetic factors, tension on the wound, excessive inflammation, and infection.

Question 11

Fat necrosis

Answer 11

Fat necrosis is death of fat tissue due to injury and loss of blood supply. It can occur from trauma or as a complication of surgery. It can cause hard lumps to form under your skin, resembling tumors. However, it’s harmless and usually goes away on its own

Question 12

Acute inflammation

Answer 12

Acute inflammation is an immediate, adaptive response with limited specificity caused by several noxious stimuli, such as infection and tissue damage (tissue necrosis). Rapid response to tissue injury, characterized by redness, swelling, and heat.

Question 13

Granuloma

Answer 13

Granulomas form when immune cells clump together and create tiny nodules at the site of the infection or inflammation. A granuloma is the body’s way: to contain an area of bacterial, viral or fungal infection so it can try to keep it from spreading; or. to isolate irritants or foreign objects.

Question 14

Granulation tissue

Answer 14

Granulation tissue formation is part of a normal healing process. Under certain conditions, such as infection, self-mutilation, or a local reaction to a chronically implanted, foreign material, this tissue grows uncontrollably and becomes very vascular and secretive.

Question 15

Fibrosis

Answer 15

fibrosis means thickening or scarring of the tissue. In this case, the normally thin, lacy walls of the air sacs in the lungs are no longer thin and lacy, but get thick, stiff and scarred, also called becoming fibrotic.

Fibrosis is when tissue thickens or scars. In the lungs, it means the thin, lacy walls of air sacs become thick, stiff, and scarred, which is called becoming fibrotic.

Question 16

Hemosiderin

Answer 16

is a protein compound that helps the body store iron. Too much built up beneath the skin can lead to staining or skin discoloration, known as hemosiderin staining or deposition, or hemosiderin hyperpigmentation.

Question 17

Chronic inflammation

Answer 17

Persistent inflammation lasting weeks to years

Presence of IgG

Question 18

Mallory bodies

Answer 18

Intracellular accumulation of protein and intermediate filaments, seen in liver diseases

Question 19

Anthracosis

Answer 19

Accumulation of carbon particles in the lungs due to environmental exposure

Question 20

Dystrophic calcification

Answer 20

Deposition of calcium in damaged or dying tissue

Question 21

Coagulative necrosis

Answer 21

Necrosis with loss of tissue architecture but preservation of cells

This type of necrosis typically occurs due to ischemia, which is a lack of blood supply to the tissue. The lack of oxygen and nutrients causes the cells to die, and the tissue takes on a firm and pale appearance. The dead cells may remain in the tissue for some time, and the tissue may retain its shape and structure for a period of time before eventually breaking down.

Coagulative necrosis is commonly seen in the heart, kidneys, and other organs that are highly vascularized.

Question 22

Caseous necrosis

Answer 22

Necrosis with formation of a cheese-like material

This type of necrosis is commonly seen in tuberculosis infections, as well as other bacterial and fungal infections. It can also occur in certain autoimmune diseases, such as sarcoidosis.

Question 23

Metastatic calcification

Answer 23

Abnormal deposition of calcium in previously normal tissue due to high levels of calcium in the blood

Question 24

Liquefactive necrosis

Answer 24

Necrosis characterized by liquefaction of tissue

This type of necrosis is commonly seen in infections of the brain, where it can lead to the formation of a brain abscess, as well as in certain types of pneumonia, skin infections, and other localized infections.

Question 25

Keloid

Answer 25

Keloid is a type of abnormal scar that forms as a result of an exaggerated healing response to a skin injury or wound.

Question 26

Hydropic change

Answer 26

Hydropic change, also known as vacuolar degeneration, is a type of cellular change that occurs in response to cellular injury or stress. It is characterized by the accumulation of water within cells, which causes the cells to swell and become distended.

Question 27

Microvesicular Steatosis

Answer 27

Microvesicular steatosis is a type of fatty change that occurs in the liver, where there is an accumulation of small droplets of fat within the liver cells (hepatocytes). These droplets are so small that they cannot be seen on routine microscopy, and instead, they can only be visualized using special staining techniques.

Microvesicular steatosis can occur as a result of various medical conditions, including drug toxicity, viral hepatitis, and metabolic disorders such as Reye syndrome, pregnancy-associated liver disease, and inborn errors of metabolism. It can also be seen in severe cases of acute fatty liver of pregnancy.

Microvesicular steatosis can cause liver dysfunction and failure in severe cases. The condition can be diagnosed by liver biopsy, where the liver tissue is examined under the microscope with specialized staining techniques.

Question 28

Macrovesicular Steatosis

Answer 28

Macrovesicular steatosis is a type of fatty change that occurs in the liver, where there is an accumulation of large droplets of fat within the liver cells (hepatocytes). These droplets can be seen on routine microscopy and can range in size from a few micrometers to several tens of micrometers in diameter.

Macrovesicular steatosis can occur as a result of various medical conditions, including obesity, type 2 diabetes, alcohol abuse, certain medications, and metabolic disorders such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

In most cases, macrovesicular steatosis is a benign condition that does not cause any significant liver dysfunction. However, in some cases, it can progress to more severe liver damage, including inflammation and fibrosis. This can lead to the development of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cirrhosis.

Macrovesicular steatosis can be diagnosed by liver biopsy, where the liver tissue is examined under the microscope for the presence of fat droplets. Imaging studies such as ultrasound, CT scan or MRI can also be used to diagnose macrovesicular steatosis.

Question 29

Congo Red

Answer 29

Congo red is a red-colored dye that is commonly used as a pH indicator, as well as a histological stain for biological tissues. It was first synthesized by Paul Böttiger in 1883 and was originally used as a textile dye. Congo red has a distinctive property of forming a complex with amyloid proteins, which are associated with various diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and type 2 diabetes. This property makes Congo red a useful tool for identifying amyloid deposits in tissues, as well as for studying the mechanisms of amyloidosis. Additionally, Congo red is used in microbiology to differentiate between bacterial colonies based on their ability to produce and degrade carbohydrates.

Question 30

Down Syndrome

Answer 30

Down syndrome, also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Question 31

Turner Syndrome

Answer 31

Turner syndrome, also known as 45,X, is a genetic disorder that affects females. It is caused by the absence or partial absence of one of the two X chromosomes that females typically have. Turner syndrome occurs in about 1 in 2,000 to 1 in 4,000 female births.

Some common features of Turner syndrome include short stature, delayed puberty, and infertility. Other physical features may include a webbed neck, low-set ears, a small jaw, and a broad chest with widely spaced nipples. Women with Turner syndrome may also have certain health conditions, such as heart defects, kidney abnormalities, and hearing loss.

Question 32

Pinhole mechanism with point illumination

Answer 32

The pinhole mechanism with point illumination, also known as the pinhole camera, is a simple optical device used to create an image of an object. The device consists of a light-tight box or container with a small hole, or aperture, on one side. On the opposite side of the box is a screen or a photographic film that captures the image formed by the light passing through the hole.

When light from a distant object enters the pinhole, it forms an inverted image on the screen or film. The size of the hole determines the sharpness and brightness of the image. A smaller hole will produce a sharper image, but the image will be dimmer. A larger hole will produce a brighter image, but the image will be less sharp.

Question 33

Merozoite

Answer 33

merozoite is a stage in the life cycle of certain parasites, specifically the malaria parasite. Malaria is a disease caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium, which is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes.

After the Plasmodium parasite enters the human body, it invades and replicates within red blood cells. During this process, the parasite goes through several developmental stages, including the merozoite stage.

Merozoites are formed when the mature form of the parasite, called a schizont, ruptures and releases numerous daughter cells into the bloodstream. These merozoites then invade other red blood cells and the cycle repeats.

The invasion of red blood cells by merozoites is what causes the symptoms of malaria. As the parasite replicates within the cells, it causes them to rupture, leading to fever, chills, and other symptoms. Severe cases of malaria can result in anemia, organ damage, and even death.

Question 34

Haematoxylin

Answer 34

Haematoxylin is a natural dye that is commonly used as a histological stain in biological research. It is derived from the heartwood of the logwood tree and has been used as a dye for centuries.

Haematoxylin is commonly used in combination with eosin, another dye, to stain biological tissues. The haematoxylin stains the nuclei of cells, which are typically blue or purple in color, while the eosin stains the cytoplasm of cells, which are typically pink or red in color. This staining technique allows researchers to visualize the structures and composition of tissues under a microscope.

Question 35

Gram stain

Answer 35

The Gram stain is a laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into two groups based on the characteristics of their cell walls. It was developed by Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram in 1884 and remains a widely used technique in microbiology.

The procedure involves staining bacterial cells with a crystal violet stain, followed by a iodine solution, a decolorizing agent, and finally a counterstain, typically safranin or fuchsin. The process results in two different types of bacterial cells: those that retain the crystal violet stain and appear purple under the microscope (Gram-positive bacteria), and those that lose the stain and appear red or pink (Gram-negative bacteria).

Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which traps the crystal violet stain and makes them appear purple. Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane that can be damaged by the decolorizing agent, which allows the crystal violet stain to be washed out and replaced by the counterstain, resulting in a red or pink color.

The Gram stain is useful in the identification and classification of bacterial species, as it provides information about the bacterial cell wall composition and can help guide antibiotic therapy. Gram-positive bacteria are often susceptible to antibiotics that target the peptidoglycan layer, while Gram-negative bacteria are typically more resistant to these types of antibiotics due to their more complex cell wall structure.

Question 36

Dichroic mirrors and filters

Answer 36

Dichroic mirrors and filters are optical devices that are used to selectively reflect or transmit certain wavelengths of light while blocking others.

A dichroic mirror is a type of mirror that reflects light of a specific wavelength or range of wavelengths, while transmitting light of other wavelengths. It works by using a thin, multilayer coating of metallic and dielectric materials that reflects certain wavelengths of light and transmits others. Dichroic mirrors are often used in optical systems, such as microscopes and telescopes, where they can selectively reflect or transmit specific wavelengths of light.

Dichroic filters, on the other hand, are optical filters that transmit certain wavelengths of light while blocking others. They work in a similar way to dichroic mirrors, using a multilayer coating of metallic and dielectric materials to selectively transmit certain wavelengths of light. Dichroic filters are often used in photography and lighting applications, where they can be used to create special lighting effects or to remove unwanted color casts from images.

Both dichroic mirrors and filters are useful in a wide range of applications, including photography, lighting, microscopy, spectroscopy, and telecommunications. They are particularly useful in applications where specific wavelengths of light need to be selectively reflected or transmitted, such as in fluorescence microscopy or in the design of optical communication systems

Question 37

Periodic Acid-Schiff

Answer 37

Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) is a staining technique used in histology and pathology to visualize complex carbohydrates, including glycogen, mucins, and glycoproteins. The technique was first described in 1945 by McManus and is named after the two main reagents used in the staining process.

The PAS staining technique involves the use of periodic acid to oxidize the carbohydrates in the tissue sample, which results in the formation of aldehydes. These aldehydes then react with Schiff’s reagent, a fuchsia-colored solution containing basic fuchsin, to form a colored complex that is visible under a microscope. The stained carbohydrates appear as magenta to purple in color.

PAS staining is commonly used in the diagnosis of several medical conditions, including glycogen storage diseases, lymphomas, leukemias, and some types of kidney and liver diseases. It is also useful in the study of normal and abnormal cellular structures, including mucus-secreting cells and extracellular matrix components.

The PAS staining technique is a valuable tool in medical research and pathology. It is often used in conjunction with other staining techniques, such as hematoxylin and eosin staining, to provide additional information about the composition of tissues and cellular structures. The use of PAS staining can help researchers and pathologists identify abnormalities in tissue samples and better understand the underlying mechanisms of various diseases.

Question 38

Cytoadherence and resetting

Answer 38

Cytoadherence is a phenomenon in which infected red blood cells (RBCs) in malaria stick to the endothelial cells lining the blood vessels in various organs, such as the brain, placenta, and lungs. This can lead to the accumulation of infected RBCs in these organs, resulting in severe symptoms and potentially life-threatening complications.

The process of cytoadherence is mediated by the interaction between specific proteins on the surface of the infected RBCs, such as PfEMP1 in Plasmodium falciparum, and receptors on the endothelial cells, such as CD36 and ICAM-1. These interactions can lead to the activation of inflammatory pathways and the disruption of normal blood flow, which can contribute to the development of complications such as cerebral malaria and pregnancy-associated malaria.

Resetting is a term used to describe the periodic release of infected RBCs from the sites of cytoadherence. It is thought to be a mechanism by which the parasite evades the immune system and prolongs the infection. The process of resetting involves the expression of different variants of the cytoadherence proteins on the surface of the infected RBCs, which allows them to bind to different receptors and detach from the endothelial cells. This periodic release of infected RBCs into the bloodstream can result in the spread of the infection to other organs and tissues.

Question 39

Excision biopsy

Answer 39

Excision biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is surgically removed from the body for examination under a microscope. The procedure is typically performed under local anesthesia and involves the removal of the entire lesion, including a margin of normal tissue around it.

Excision biopsy is commonly used to diagnose and treat skin cancers, such as melanoma, as well as other skin lesions that may be suspected of being malignant. The procedure can also be used to diagnose and treat other types of tumors, such as breast lumps and lymph nodes.

During the procedure, the area around the lesion is cleaned and numbed with a local anesthetic. The surgeon then makes an incision in the skin and removes the entire lesion, along with a margin of normal tissue around it. The tissue sample is then sent to a laboratory for examination under a microscope.

After the procedure, the wound is closed with stitches or adhesive strips and covered with a dressing. The patient may experience some discomfort and swelling, but most people are able to resume their normal activities within a few days.

Excision biopsy is a reliable way to diagnose and treat many types of skin and tissue abnormalities. It provides a definitive diagnosis and can be used to determine the extent of a tumor or lesion. In some cases, additional treatment, such as radiation or chemotherapy, may be necessary depending on the findings of the biopsy.

Question 40

Oil immersion

Answer 40

Oil immersion is a microscopy technique used to increase the resolving power and clarity of images obtained through a light microscope. It is commonly used in microbiology and other fields to examine small, transparent specimens such as bacteria, fungi, and tissue samples.

The technique involves using a special immersion oil with a high refractive index that is placed between the microscope objective lens and the specimen being examined. This oil has the same refractive index as glass, which minimizes the loss of light that occurs when light passes through different materials of varying refractive indices.

When the microscope is focused on the specimen, the high refractive index oil fills the gap between the objective lens and the specimen, which reduces the amount of light that is refracted and scattered. This results in a clearer and sharper image, with better contrast and resolution.

Oil immersion microscopy is commonly used in the identification of bacteria and other microorganisms. It allows for a more accurate examination of the morphology and structure of these microorganisms, which can aid in their identification and classification. Additionally, it is often used in medical research and diagnosis, where it is used to identify abnormal cells and tissues in biopsy samples.

Question 41

Core biopsy

Answer 41

Core biopsy is a medical procedure used to remove a small sample of tissue from an organ or abnormal growth within the body. It is commonly used to diagnose cancer and other types of abnormal cell growths.

During the procedure, a small incision is made in the skin over the area of interest. A special biopsy needle is then inserted through the incision and guided to the area being examined using imaging techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan or MRI. Once the needle is in place, a small cylindrical core of tissue is removed using a spring-loaded device. The procedure may be repeated several times to obtain multiple samples from different areas of the growth.

The tissue samples obtained through core biopsy are then examined under a microscope by a pathologist to determine if there are any cancerous or abnormal cells present. The results of the biopsy can help guide the patient’s treatment plan and determine the prognosis of the disease.

Core biopsy is a minimally invasive procedure that is generally well-tolerated by patients. It can be performed on an outpatient basis, and patients can usually return to normal activities shortly after the procedure. There may be some mild discomfort or bruising at the site of the biopsy, which can be managed with over-the-counter pain relievers.

Overall, core biopsy is an important tool in the di

Question 42

Fine needle aspiration cytology

Answer 42

Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is a medical procedure used to obtain a small sample of tissue or fluid from a suspicious lump or mass for examination under a microscope. The technique involves inserting a thin, hollow needle into the lump or mass and using suction to remove a small sample of cells or fluid.

FNAC is commonly used to diagnose cancer and other types of abnormal cell growths, as well as to differentiate between benign and malignant tumors. It can be performed on various parts of the body, including the breast, thyroid, lymph nodes, liver, and pancreas.

The procedure is typically performed in an outpatient setting, and usually takes only a few minutes to complete. It may be performed under local anesthesia or sedation, depending on the location and size of the lump or mass.

The sample of cells or fluid obtained through FNAC is then examined under a microscope by a pathologist, who can determine if there are any cancerous or abnormal cells present. Results are typically available within a few days, and can help guide the patient’s treatment plan and determine the prognosis of the disease.

Question 43

Haemozoin

Answer 43

Haemozoin is a crystalline pigment that is formed during the life cycle of the malaria parasite within human red blood cells. It is a byproduct of the parasite’s digestion of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells.

When the malaria parasite feeds on hemoglobin, it breaks down the protein into smaller peptides and amino acids. One of the byproducts of this process is a molecule called heme, which contains an iron ion that is toxic to the parasite. The parasite converts the toxic heme into haemozoin by sequestering it into a crystalline form that is harmless to the parasite.

Haemozoin appears as brown or black pigment within infected red blood cells and is visible under a microscope. It is a characteristic feature of malaria infection and is often used to confirm the diagnosis of the disease.

Haemozoin is also an important target for malaria treatment. Many anti-malaria drugs work by inhibiting the formation of haemozoin, which leads to the accumulation of toxic heme within the parasite and eventually kills it. Understanding the biology of haemozoin formation is therefore critical to the development of new and effective treatments for malaria.

Question 44

Schizont

Answer 44

A schizont is a stage in the life cycle of certain protozoan parasites, including the malaria parasite. During the asexual reproduction phase of the life cycle, the parasite undergoes several rounds of cell division within the host’s red blood cells, resulting in the formation of a schizont.

The schizont is a large, multinucleated structure that contains many daughter cells, or merozoites, that are formed from the multiple rounds of cell division. When the schizont ruptures, the merozoites are released into the bloodstream, where they can infect new red blood cells and continue the cycle of infection.

The schizont stage is particularly important in the pathology of malaria, as it is responsible for the destruction of red blood cells, leading to the characteristic symptoms of the disease. The rupture of schizonts also releases large amounts of toxins into the bloodstream, which can contribute to the severity of the disease.

Question 45

Exfoliative cytology

Answer 45

Exfoliative cytology is a diagnostic technique that involves collecting cells from the surface of a tissue or organ and examining them under a microscope to look for abnormalities or signs of disease. The technique is non-invasive and can be used to diagnose a wide range of conditions, including cancer and precancerous lesions.

The most common application of exfoliative cytology is in the detection and diagnosis of cancer, particularly in the early stages of the disease. The technique can be used to examine cells from a variety of sites, including the cervix, bladder, lungs, and skin. The cells are collected using a swab or brush, and then smeared onto a glass slide and stained for examination under a microscope.

Exfoliative cytology can also be used to monitor the progression of certain diseases, such as inflammatory conditions and infections. By examining the cells over time, doctors can track changes in the tissue and assess the effectiveness of treatment.

One advantage of exfoliative cytology is that it is minimally invasive and does not require a biopsy or surgery. The procedure is quick and relatively painless, and can be performed in an outpatient setting. However, the technique has limitations, particularly in the sensitivity and specificity of the test, and false negative or false positive results can occur.

Question 46

Edwards Syndrome

Answer 46

Edwards syndrome, also known as trisomy 18, is a genetic disorder that occurs when a person has an extra copy of chromosome 18. This extra genetic material can cause a wide range of physical and intellectual disabilities.

Edwards syndrome is a rare condition, occurring in approximately 1 in 5,000 live births. The disorder is more common in girls than in boys. Most cases of Edwards syndrome occur spontaneously and are not inherited from parents.

Individuals with Edwards syndrome may have a variety of physical abnormalities, including a small head, low-set ears, small mouth and jaw, clenched fists, and rocker-bottom feet. They may also have heart defects, breathing problems, and feeding difficulties. Intellectual disability is common, and many affected individuals do not survive beyond infancy or early childhood.

There is no cure for Edwards syndrome, and treatment is focused on managing symptoms and improving quality of life. This may include surgery to correct heart defects, feeding support, and physical therapy to improve muscle tone and motor skills.

The prognosis for individuals with Edwards syndrome varies depending on the severity of the condition and the presence of other medical complications. Many affected individuals have a significantly reduced lifespan, and those who do survive may have significant physical and intellectual disabilities.

Question 47

Ziehl-Neelsen

Answer 47

Ziehl-Neelsen is a staining technique used in microbiology to detect acid-fast bacteria, particularly Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis. The technique is named after the German bacteriologist Franz Ziehl and the Norwegian physician Gerhard Neelsen, who developed it in the late 1800s.

The Ziehl-Neelsen staining method uses a combination of heat, acid, and a special stain to differentiate acid-fast bacteria from other microorganisms. The sample, typically a sputum or tissue sample, is first decontaminated and then heat-fixed onto a microscope slide. The slide is then flooded with a solution of carbol fuchsin, a red dye that penetrates the cell walls of acid-fast bacteria.

The slide is heated to drive the dye into the cells, and then decolorized with acid-alcohol, which removes the dye from non-acid-fast bacteria but leaves it in the acid-fast bacteria. Finally, the slide is counterstained with a contrasting color, typically methylene blue, to enhance the visibility of the stained bacteria.

Acid-fast bacteria appear as bright red, rod-shaped structures under the microscope, while non-acid-fast bacteria and other tissue components appear blue. The Ziehl-Neelsen staining technique is particularly useful for the rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis, as it can detect the presence of acid-fast bacteria in a sputum sample within a few hours. It is also used for the diagnosis of other infections caused by acid-fast bacteria, such as leprosy and some nocardial infections.