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2. wk > Cell organelles & inclus. at light > Flashcards

Cell organelles & inclus. at light Flashcards

1
Q

What is histology?

A

-is essentially Microanotomy study of the structure (Anatomy) of small (micro) things
->HISTO + LOGOS=
the study of tissues

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2
Q

What are those small (micro) things?

A

-small things are the cells and their arrangements to constitute tissues and, finally, the association among these to form organ

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3
Q

When was the “cell” discovered? What is the word origin?

A
  • In 1665, Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
  • Hooke derived the designation from the Latin, cellula ; i.e., small compartment, having in mind a comparison with a honeycomb (Wabe)
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4
Q

Who was the first to observe the true units that form the tissues of animals?

A

-Malpighi

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5
Q

Who carried out the first description of the nucleus and when?

A
  • Leeuwenhoek, in 1700, when examining the red blood cells of the salmon
  • > from the Latin, nucleus = almond (Mandel)
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6
Q

Who accomplished the first description of the nuclear envelope (Atomhülle) ?

A

-Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1787-1869), a Czech biologist, in 1839

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7
Q

Who introduced the term nucleus in microscopy?

A

-Robert Brown (1773-1858), a Scottish botanist, has introduced the term nucleus in microscopy

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8
Q

Which term did Purkinje also introduced in Science?

A

-protoplasma (1840)

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9
Q

Who is considered (by some authors) to be the founder of Animal Histology?

A

-Marie François Bichat, a French pathologist (1771-1802)

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10
Q

Who is the father of microscopy? (Holland)

A
  • Anton van Leeuwenhoek of Holland
  • the first to see and describe bacteria, yeast (Hefe) plants, life in a drop of water, and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries
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11
Q

Who is the English father of microscopy?

A
  • Robert Hooke
  • re-confirmed Anton van Leeuwenhoek’s discoveries of the existence of tiny living organisms in a drop of water
  • > made a copy of Leeuwenhoek’s light microscope and then improved upon his design
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12
Q

What did Charles A. Spencer do?

A

-By middle of the 19th Century-manufacture fine optical equipment and the industry he founded

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13
Q

What is a light microscope?

A

-Optical microscope, often referred to as light microscope, is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples

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14
Q

How can scientists see tiny particles under a microscope?

A

-To see tiny particles under a microscope, scientists must bypass (umgehen) light all together and use a different sort of “illumination,” (Beleuchung) one with a shorter wavelength.

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15
Q

What is a simple microscope?

A

-A simple microscope is a microscope that uses a lens or set of lenses to enlarge an object through angular magnification

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16
Q

What is fixation? And which reactions are important?

A
  • Fixation: stop cell metabolism and preservation of tissue structure
  • Formaldehyde preserves general structure of the cell and extracellullar components by reacting with amino groups of proteins
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17
Q

Why is it embedded in paraffin?

A
  • for tissue sectioning (Gewebeschneiden)
  • sectioning by microtome
  • > 5 to 10 um of thickness
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18
Q

With what are sections strained?

A

-Staining of tissue sections with histological dyes
-Haematoxylin and eosin
Nucleus: blue
Cytoplasm :pink

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19
Q

What are HISTOCHEMISTRY AND CYTOCHEMISTRY

based on?

A
  • based on specific binding of a dye to a particular cell component
    or:
  • on the inherent enzymatic activity
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20
Q

What happens to cell after fixation?

A

-Some of the components are dissolved such as:
->glycogen and proteoglycans, ions,
small molecules
-Some are reacted with other molecules to form large macromolecules such as:
->Nucleoproteins,
Cytoskeletal proteins,
Membrane phospholipid proteins

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21
Q

What is the mostly used staining method?

A

-Heamatoxylin and Eosin

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22
Q

What kind of dye reacts with which kind of groups?

A
  • acid dye with negative charge reacts with cationic groups in cell
  • basic dye carries positive charge and reacts with anionic groups in cell
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23
Q

What is the major factor for tissue-strain binding ?

A

-electrostatic linkage

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24
Q

What is basophilia?

A

-the ability of anionic groups to react (within a cell) with a basic dye

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25
Q

What does hematoxylin cause? (+What is it?)

A

-is a basic dye and causes basophilia of some cell components

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26
Q

What is acidophilia?

A

-the ability of cationic groups to react (within a cell) with acidic dyes

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27
Q

What does the prokaryotic cell have? (example bacteria)

A
  • devoid of a membrane-bounded nucleus
  • 1 to 5 microns
  • have a cell wall outside the cell membrane
  • no membrane- surrounded organelles
  • ribosomes
  • flagella and pili
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28
Q

What do eukaryotic cells have?

A
  • are larger
  • have a membrane-surrounded nucleus
  • and numerous types of cellular organelles
  • also have histones associated with DNA in the nucleus
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29
Q

Name all the organelles which appear in cytoplasm (eukaryotic)

A
  • Mitochondrion
  • Endoplasmic reticulum
  • Ribosome
  • Golgi complex
  • Lysosomes
  • Peroxisomes
  • Inclusions
  • Microtubules
  • Microfilaments
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30
Q

List the different cell shapes

A
  1. -Cylindrical/columnar (säulenartig), cuboidal (quaderformig), polyhedral, flattened epithelial cell shapes to fit into multicellular patterns
  2. -Spheroid & Ovoid - defensive blood cells
  3. -Elongated - muscle cells & fibroblasts
  4. -Multiple branching processes - neurons, glial cells, pigment cells
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31
Q

How thick is the cell membrane? What does it house? With what is it visible?

A
  • It is of 7.5 nm of thickness
  • It houses cytoplasmic matrix containing specialized membrane-surrounded components called organelles
  • Not visible at light microscope; visible by transmission electron microscope
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32
Q

What is a unit membrane?

A

-a trilaminar structure of two thin dense lines with a medium light area

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33
Q

What is the major component in the cell membrane?

A
  • the lipid bilayer with:
  • proteins
  • cholesterol (between hydrophobic fatty acid chain)
  • oligosaccharides
  • > molecules are held together by non covalent bonds
  • > this structure results in dynamic and fluid feature of cell membrane
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34
Q

What acts as a selective barrier?

A
  • the plasma membrane

- >maintains the internal environment of the cell, as different from the extracellular region

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35
Q

Which three possibilities exist in the movement of molecules through the plasma membranes?

A
  • simple diffusion
  • carrier protein (opens, closes)
  • channel protein (ein Kanal)
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36
Q

What is the basic structure of the membrane?

A
  • lipid bilayer
  • double layer of lipid molecules (about 5nm of thickness)
  • > relatively impermeable (undurchlässig) barrier to the passage of most water-soluble (wasserlöslich) substances
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37
Q

How are the phospholipid molecule in the lipid bilayer composed?

A
  • composed of a polar head (at the surface) and two nonpolar fatty acid tails (toward enter of plasmalemma)
  • Nonpolar components of two layers face each other
  • > By noncovalent bonds, hold the bilayer together
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38
Q

What is the hydrophilic region in the lipid bilayer?

A

-the polar head

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39
Q

What is the hydrophobic region in the lipid bilayer?

A

-nonpolar fatty acid tails

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40
Q

As which kinds are proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer?

A

-as “integral” or peripheral proteins or transmembrane proteins

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41
Q

Which proteins usually form ionic channels?

A

-transmembrane proteins

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42
Q

What does the model Fluid Mosaic Model describe?

A

-integral proteins have the ability to float (schweben) in the sea of phospholipids

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43
Q

What is glycocalyx? How thick?

A
  • carbohydrate chains covalently bound to transmembrane proteins and phospholpid molecules of the outer leaflet + extracellular matrix molecules
  • 50 nm of thickness
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44
Q

What are the functions of glycocalyx?

A
  • protects cell from interaction with inappropriate proteins, cell injury
  • provides cell to cell recognition
  • adhesion (Haftung) function
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45
Q

Why does glycocalyx stain intensely?

A

-stains intensely due to negatively charged sulfate and carboxyl groups

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46
Q

What are the functions of membrane?

A
  • maintains the structural integrity (Einheit) of the cell
  • control movements of substances in and out of the cell
  • > selective permeability (gezielte Durchlässigkeit)
  • regulate cell to cell interactions
  • recognize the antigen via receptors
  • acts as an interface between cytoplasm and external medium
  • establishes transport systems for specific molecules
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47
Q

What allows the cell to maintain its shape?

A

-membrane provides anchoring (Verankerung) sites for cytoskeletal filaments or components of the extracellular matrix

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48
Q

Membrane transduces extracellular physical and chemical signs into?

A

-intracellular events

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49
Q

What does the membrane also provide and what does it also regulate?

A
  • regulate the fusion of the membrane with other membranes by way of specialized junctions (Verbindungen)
  • provide a passageway across the membrane for ionic exchange ,as in gap junctions
  • by apical cell modification, it provides cellular motility (Beweglichkeit) and absorption (cilium and flagellum)
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50
Q

In which two components is ER (endoplasmic reticulum) devided ?

A

-smooth and rough ER

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51
Q

Cells involved in what are rich in RER?

A
  • cells involved in protein synthesis

- >their membranes possess integral proteins that recognize and bind to ribosomes

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52
Q

As what does RER function?

A
  • RER functions in the synthesis of all proteins

- sulfation,folding and glycolisation

53
Q

For what are SER (smooth endoplasmic reticulum) important?

A

-important in detoxification (Entgiftung) of toxic substances

54
Q

SER is very abundant in?

A

-Very abundant in steroid, cholesterol, and triglycerides synthezising cells

55
Q

The lumen of SER is continuous with?

A

-with that of RER

56
Q

What can cause the SER to double its surface area?

A
  • SER doubles in surface area within a few days because of:
  • > When large quantities of drugs enter the circulation, detoxification enzymes are synthesized in the liver in unusually large amounts
57
Q

Which binding proteins reside on SER?

A

-Ca2+binding proteins

58
Q

What is ribosome composed of? What happens there?

A
  • Small particles of 12 nm to 25 nm
  • composed of proteins and ribosomal RNA
  • site for protein synthesis
  • large and small subunits
59
Q

Which role does each subunits of ribosome have? When do they unite?

A
  • small subunit has a site for binding of mRNA; P site for peptidyl tRNA and A site for aminoacyl T RNA
  • large subunit that helps form the peptide bond and holds the peptide chain
  • > small and large subunits unite during protein synthesis
60
Q

How are unattached ribosomes called? Where is the use?

A
  • free ribosomes

- >are involved in the synthesis of protein for use within cytoplasm

61
Q

In what are ribosomes involved which are attached to the ER?

A
  • in the synthesis of proteins for secretion (absondern), lysosomal enzymes and for new membranes
62
Q

Define polyribosome (polysome)

A

-numerous ribosomes, each creating a separate peptide chain, are called polyribosome or polysome

63
Q

How can we see the ribosomes at Light microscope ?

A

-individual ribosomes and polysomes could not be observed by light microscope

64
Q

What does their localization in cytoplasm cause?

A

-their localization in cytoplasm cause BASOPHILIA-Deep staining ability by basic dyes

65
Q

Why are the cells containing large numbers of free ribosomes (neurons, malignant neoplasms) basophilic?

A

-due to the presence nucleic acid in the ribosomes

66
Q

The functions of Golgi complex

A

-Functions in the synthesis of carbohydrates and modifications and sorting of proteins newly done in RER

67
Q

Where are vesicles located? (Golgi complex)

A

-at their periphery (Rand)

68
Q

What is the Golgi-stacks composed of?

A
  • 3-12 parallel flattened membrane-bound cisterns (membranumschlossenen, meist flachen Hohlräumen)
69
Q

What is called cis face (entry face) ?

A

-Convex surface of the stack , near the nucleus

70
Q

What is called TRANS face (mature face)?

A

-Concave surface facing the plasma membrane

71
Q

Where do numerous transfer vesicles appear? (Golgi stack)

A

-near the entry face (cis) and edges of Golgi stack

72
Q

What forms at the mature face?

A

-secretory vesicles and condensing vacuoles

73
Q

Which kind of shape do mitochondria have?

A

-rod (Stab)-shaped organelles

74
Q

Where are mitochondria not present?

A

-present in all cells except red blood cells and keratinocytes

75
Q

Can mitochondria self-replicate?

A

-yes

76
Q

What is the size of mitochondria?

A

-05 to 7 um (nano) in size

77
Q

What are cristae?

A

-folds (Falten) of inner membrane

smooth outer membrane

78
Q

What is ATP?

A
  • the primary energy carrier in all living organisms on earth
79
Q

What are the four methods of creating ATP?

A
  • glycolysis
  • oxidative phosphorylation
  • beta oxidation
  • aerobic respiration
80
Q

How is ATP produced in oxidative phosphorylation ?

A

-ATP is produced when electrons flow from chemicals known as NADH or FADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide respectively) to oxygen

81
Q

Which kind of protein does the other membrane (mitochondria) contain? What does it (Protein) form ?

A
  • The outer membrane contains numerous number of transmembrane protein porin, as transport proteins
  • Porin forms large aqueous channels through the lipid bilayer
82
Q

For what is the outer membrane (mitochondria) permeable?

A

-to all molecules of 5000 daltons or less, including small proteins

83
Q

Intermembrane space (mitochondria) is chemically equivalent to? Why is it equivalent?

A
  • to the cytosol with respect to the small molecules it contains
  • most of the molecules could not pass the inner membrane (can enter the intermembrane space though)
84
Q

Why and where are cristae?

A

-inner mitochondria are folded to form cristae to increase surface area

85
Q

What is caridolipin?

A

-a phospholipid possessing 4 fatty acyl chains

86
Q

The inner membrane is impermeable to?

A

-to ions and electrons

87
Q

What is known as the numerous subunits displayed by the inner membrane?

A

-protein complexes known as ATP synthetase or ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

88
Q

Where is respiratory chain enzymes located?

A

-additional protein complex (as respiratory chain enzymes) are located on the inner membrane

89
Q

How can ATP generated from ADP?

A

-by adding inorganic phosphate

90
Q

How big is the matrix granules?

A

-30 to 50 nm

91
Q

What does the mitochondrial matrix contain?

A
  • high content of protein (more than 50 %)
  • ribosomes
  • tRNA
  • mRNA
  • matrix granules
  • circular DNA
  • enzymes necessary to express mitochondrial genome
  • > viscous (zähflüssig)
92
Q

Which enzymatic breakdown happens in the mitochondrial matrix?

A
  • enzymatic breakdown of fatty acids and pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
  • > acetly Coa then is oxidated in Krebs cycle
93
Q

The binging of calcium protects?

A
  • Magnesium and calcium binding

- >Binding of calcium to protect cell from calcium toxicity

94
Q

What is lysosomes?

A
  • membrane-bounded organelles containing 40 different types of acid hydrolases
  • > sulfatases, proteases, nuclease, lipases, glycosidases
  • digestive organelles of the cell
95
Q

What is the function of the lysosomal membranes proton pump?

A

-to transport H+ ions into lysosome

96
Q

Which ph is required for an acid medium? (lysosomes)

A

-5.0

97
Q

From where is the lysosomes pinched off?

A
  • from trans Golgi cisterns

- >kept inside the cell

98
Q

What does the primary lysosomes digest?

A
  • extracellular substances (crinophagy)
  • cellullar debris (Trümmer)
  • damaged, old organelles (autophagy)
99
Q

How are secondary lysosomes created?

A
  • when primary lysosomes fuse with phagosomes/pinosome (engulfed (verschlungenes) Material)
  • > autophagosomes, autophagic vacuoles, digestive vacuole
100
Q

Hydrolytic breakdown of the contents of secondary lysosomes cause?

A

-residual (Rest) body formation

101
Q

As what does Lipofuscin granules?

A
  • age pigment

- Lipofuscin as the residual body

102
Q

Describe the three steps of lysosomal storage disease

A
  • absence of certain lysosomal enzymes
  • > Accumulation of undigested material
  • ->Lysososomal storage diseases (Tay-Sach”s disease)
103
Q

What is exocytosis describing?

A

-exocytosis expels material from the cell into the extracellular space or into a lumen

104
Q

What are the steps in exocytosis?

A
  • 1.Actin filaments bring vesicle to cell membrane
  • 2.Vesicle & cell membranes fuse
  • 3.Fused membranes rupture
  • 4.Vesicle content discharged Vesicle membrane incorporated in plasmalemma
105
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

-ENDOCYTOSIS brings in material from outside to the interior, but still confined within a membrane-enclosed body an endosome, or, if large (e.g., a bacterium), a phagosome

106
Q

Describe the steps of Endocytosis

A
  • 1.Plasmalemma
  • 2.Binding & Invagination
  • 3.Membrane separation Fusion to make vesicle
  • 4.Coated (beschichtetes) vesicle
  • > Actin filaments move vesicle in endocytic pathway
107
Q

What are peroxisomes (microbodies)?

A

-membrane-bounded organelles (0.5 um)
-containing oxidative enzymes to breakdown hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) such as :
-D-amino acid oxidase,
ureate oxidase, and
catalase
(->Peroxidasen reduzieren giftige Wasserstoffperoxide zu Sauerstoff und Wasser)

108
Q

What is characteristic feature for peroxisome?

A

-a crystalline structure inside a sac which also contains amorphous gray material is a characteristic feature for peroxisome

109
Q

How are new peroxisomes formed?

A

-through fission

110
Q

Where are peroxisomes in a numerous form?

A

-are numerous in the liver where toxic by-products are going to accumulate

111
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A
  • a tridimensional meshwork of protein filaments
  • specialized cytoplasmic proteins supporting the cell
  • a contractile system
  • > properties serve for maintaining, changing the cell shape an its motility
112
Q

What does the cytoskeleton include?

A
  • the microtubules
  • microfilaments
  • intermediate filaments
113
Q

What is Microtubules? With what is it assembled (zusammengebaut)?

A
  • 25 nm of diameter
  • Cylindrical structures
  • readily assembled and disassembled from cytoplasmic pools of the protein tubulin
  • > rigid structure for maintenance of cell shape
114
Q

Microtubules is involved in?

A
  • cilia formation (basal body formation)
  • mitotoic spindle formation (the centriole) for cell division
  • cilia and flaggella formation
  • centriole formation
  • axon structure
115
Q

What are filaments?

A
  • fadenförmigen Zellstrukturen
116
Q

What does the microtubules consist of?

A
  • 13 parallel protofilaments with alpha and beta tubulin subunits
  • During mitotic division, rapid polimerization of subunits provide formation mitotic spindle
117
Q

What are microfilaments? What does it provide?

A
  • fine, thread like (fine fadenförmige) structures about 6 to 7 nanometers in diameter
  • provide for movement and shape change
  • > acts as the muscles
118
Q

What are the microfilaments composed of?

A
  • composed of the contractile protein actin
  • > represent a primitive contractile system, forming large bundles called stress fibers
  • usually found as a band just under the plasma membrane
119
Q

What are the functions of microfilaments?

A
  • anchorage (verankerung) and movement of membrane proteins
  • movement of plasma membrane (as endocytosis-exocytosis and cytokinesis)
  • structural core of microvilli
  • cell process elongation
  • cellular locomotion
  • contract to result in “cytoplasmic streaming”
  • -wound healing (stress fibers)
  • stress fibers may extend between two focal points to assist the cell in exerting a tensile force on extracellular matrix
  • -connect internal structures or organelles to transmembrane proteins of neighboring cells or to extracellular matrix filaments(esp. in muscle and epidermis of skin)
  • a close link between tumor diagnosis and intermediate filaments
120
Q

What are intermediate filaments?

A
  • Supporting role
  • non-contractile
  • frequently grouped into delicate bundles (fibrils) in the cytoplasm
121
Q

What are the 5 major classes of intermediate filaments?

A
  • Cytokeratin
  • Vimentin
  • Desmin
  • Neurofilaments
  • Glial fibrillary acidic protein

-spectrin and laminin

122
Q

What is centrioles?

A

-cylindrical paired cell structure composed mainly of a protein called tubulin

123
Q

Where is centrioles located? How long? Which microtubules are fused? How many protofilaments?

A
  • -centrosome
  • 0.2 nm long
  • A, b and c microtubules are fused to one another
  • 13 protofilaments
124
Q

When do centrioles replicate? What do they do after duplication? For which kind of formation are centrioles important?

A
  • Centrioles replicate prior to cell division in S phase
  • After duplication, they separate from each other
  • Centrioles are important in the formation of new microtubule system in new cells
125
Q

For what are basal bodies important? How are they formed? Where does it migrate?

A
  • Important for cilium formation
  • basal bodies are formed by repeated replication of centrioles
  • migrate to apical cell surface
126
Q

What is the function of basal bodies?

A

-serves as organizer of microtubules for cilium formation

127
Q

What are inclusions?

A
  • Transient (vorrübergehende) elements of cell:
  • Secretory granules
  • Pigment granules
  • Lipofuchsin granules
128
Q

Name some examples of inclusions?

A
  • Lipid droplets
  • Glycogen
  • Crystals
  • Virus
  • > Non-membrane bounded

2. wk (9 decks)

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