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cell division Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are eukaryotes and what r eukaryotic cells

A

eukaryotic cells are complex and include all animal and plant cells
eukaryotes are organisms that are made up of eukaryotic cells

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2
Q

what r prokaryotes and prokaryotic cells

A

prokaryote is a prokaryotic cell (it’s a single celled organism)
prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler e.g. bacteria

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3
Q

define nucleus

A

contains genetic material that controls the activities of the cell

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4
Q

cytoplasm definition

A

a gel like substance where most of the chemical reactions happen. it contains enzymes that control these chemical reactions

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5
Q

cell membrane definition

A

holds cell together and controls what goes in and out

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6
Q

mitochondria definition

A

most reactions for aerobic respiration take place. respiration transfers energy that the cell needs to work

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7
Q

ribosomes definition

A

these are where proteins are made in the cell

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8
Q

cell wall definition

A

a rigid structure made of cellulose. it supports + strengthens the cell

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9
Q

permanent vacuole definition

A

contains cell sap, a weak solution of sugar and salts

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10
Q

chloroplasts definition

A

where photosynthesis occurs which makes food for the plant. they contain chlorophyll which absorbs the light needed for photosynthesis

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11
Q

what does bacteria cells have

A

bacteria are prokaryotes. a bacterial cell has cytoplasm and a cell membrane surrounded by a cell wall. the cell doesn’t have a “true” nucleus instead it has a single circular stand of DNA that floats freely in the cytoplasm. they also may contain one or more small rings of DNA called plasmids

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12
Q

what do light microscopes use and do

A

they use light and lenses to form an image of speicimen and magnify it. they let us see individual cells and large subcellular structures like nuclei

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13
Q

what do electron microscopes use and do

A

they use electrons instead of light to form an image. they have a higher magnification than light microscopes they also have a higher resolution. they let us see much smaller things in detail like the internal structure of mitochondria and chloroplasts

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14
Q

whats resolution

A

the ability to see detail

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15
Q

how do u prepare a microscope slide

A

add a drop of water onto the centre of the slide
peel of a layer of onion epidermal tissue and place onto the water. this should be a thin layer so individual cells can be seen
put one or two drops of iodine solution onto the onion layer this is a stain which makes the cell easier to see
carefully lower the cover slip at an angle this helps to prevent air bubbles from being produced

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16
Q

how many lenses does a light microscope have and what are they

A

a light microscope has 2 lenses
the eyepiece lens is the lens u look down this usually magnifies a specimen by x10
there are 3 different objective lens which are found above the stage. these magnify the specimen by either x4, x10 or x40

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17
Q

how to use a microscope

A

secure the slide onto the stage using the clips
select the lowest powered objective lens
move the coarse focus wheel so the stage is just under the objective lens
look down the eyepiece lens and slowly rotate the coarse focus wheel to form a rough image
use the fine focus wheel to form a sharper image

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18
Q

what 4 things should all biological drawings have (microscope)

A

there should be a title and the magnification should be stated
continuous lines/no sketching
no shading
label the correct parts which you can see

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19
Q

equation for magnification

A

magnification = image size/real size

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20
Q

if u have a magnified image thats 2mm wide and ur specimen is 0.02 mm wide the magnification is?

A

(2/0.02) x 100 = 1000

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21
Q

how do u get cm to mm

A

multiply by 10

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22
Q

how do u get mm to μm

A

multiply by 1000

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23
Q

how do u get from μm to mm

A

divide by 1000

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24
Q

how to get from mm to cm

A

divide by 10

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25
Q

whats a specialised cell

A

its a cell that performs a specific function. most cells in an organism are specialised. a cell’s structure helps it to carry out it’s function so depending on what job it does a specialised cell can look vey different from other cells

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26
Q

whats cell differentation

A

the process by which a cell changes to become specialised for its job. as cells change they develop different subcellular structures and turn into different types of cells

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27
Q

when does most differentiation occur

A

most differentiation occurs as an organism develops

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28
Q

some cells are undifferentiated cells what are they called

A

stem cells

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29
Q

examples of 3 specialised cells in animals

A

sperm cells
nerve cells
muscle cells

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30
Q

examples of 2 specialised cells in plants

A

root hair cell
phloem and xylem cell

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31
Q

function and adaptations of root hair cells

A

to absorb water and mineral ions from the soil
the root hair or the root hair cells increases the cells surface area for maximum absorption

32
Q

function and adaptation of xylem and phloem cells

A

function - transporting substances around a plant
adaptations - mostly hollow to allow the passage of substances

33
Q

function and adaptation of sperm cells

A

function - to get male DNA to the female DNA
adaptations - long tail and streamlined head to help it swim to the egg
also lots of mitochondria in cell to provide energy it needs to do this
carries enzymes in its head to digest through the egg cell membrane

34
Q

function and adaptations of nerve cell

A

function - sends messages around the body
adaptations - long cells and form connections

35
Q

function and adaptation of muscle cells

A

contract to bring about movement
adaptation - many mitochondria –> transfers energy via respiration

36
Q

what do meristem tissues in the plant contain

A

they contain stem cells which can differentiate into any type of plant cell. these stem cells can differentiate throughout the lifetime of the plant

37
Q

what can stem cells from plants to be used to produce and what technique is it called

A

they can be used to produce clones of plants very quickly and economically this technique is called tissue culture

38
Q

what r the advantages of using stem cells to produce clones of plants

A

rare species at risk of going extinct can be cloned quickly preventing this from happening
crop plants which have useful features such as being resistant to diseases can be cloned to produce large numbers. this allows farmers to make more profit

39
Q

whats ur genetic material stored in forms as

A

chromosomes

40
Q

body cells normally have … copies of chromosome where do they come from and how many do humans have

A

body cells have 2 copies of each chromosome one from the organisms “mother” and one from its “father” so humans have 2 copies of chromosome 1, 2 copies of chromosome 2 ect.

41
Q

what are chromosomes

A

they’re long lengths of a molecule called DNA the DNA is coiled up to form the arms of a chromosome

42
Q

each chromosome carries a large number of….

A

genes

43
Q

what do genes control

A

controls characteristics. different genes control the development of different characteristics e.g. hair colour, eye colour ect

44
Q

what controls characteristics, different genes ect

A

genes

45
Q

whats mitosis

A

is when a cell reproduces itself by splitting to form 2 identical offspirng

46
Q

whats stage 1 of the cell cycle

A

this occurs before the cell can divide, 2 events occur in stage 1 of the cell cycle
the cell grows in size and increases the number of sub-cellular structures such as mitochondria and ribosomes
the mitochondria of the cell transfers energy during aerobic respiration
the ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis (i.e. where proteins are built)
the DNA replicates to form 2 copies of each chromosome

47
Q

whats stage 2 of the cell cycle

A

this stage of the cell cycle is called mitosis
another version of stage 2 is called meiosis and this is only used if the cell is dividing to make gametes (egg,sperm or pollen cells)
2 events occur during mitosis
1 set if chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell
the nucleus divides

48
Q

whats stage 3 of the cell cycle

A

in this stage the cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form 2 genetically identical daughter cells
cell division by mitosis is important because
this is how multicellular organisms grow
it can be used to repair wounds/tissues
organisms which use asexual reproduction to do this via cell division by mitosis

49
Q

where are stem cells found

A

found in early embryos

50
Q

bacteria have a mean division time of 20 mins if u start with one bacterial cell how many will there be after four hours

A

4 hours = 240 mins
240/20=12
then 2 to the power of 12 = 4096 cells

51
Q

in human body cells how many chromosomes are there in total

A

there r 46 chromosomes in total they’re found in pairs therefore there are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell

52
Q

bacterial cells are examples of what cells

A

prokaryotic cells this means they’re smaller than eukaryotic cells e.g. plant and animal cells

53
Q

if provided with the correct conditions bacteria will reproduce via a simpler form of cell division whats it called and what conditions do u need

A

if provided with high oxygen availability, warm temp and high nutrient availability
its called binary fission

54
Q

whats the mean division time

A

the mean division time is how long it takes for one bacterium to undergo binary fission

55
Q

whats the are around the antibiotic disc where no bacteria are growing/bacteria has been killed called

A

the zone of inhibition

56
Q

in the investigation the different antibiotics would be the…

A

independent variable

57
Q

to measure their effectiveness the area of the inhibition zone is measured this is the dependent variable whats the method for doing this…

A

measure the diameter of the circle usually in mm
having this to get the radius
using piersquared to calculate the area

58
Q

in an experiment the control is used for

A

comparison purposes

59
Q

for evaluate questions what 3 things should ALWAYS be done

A
  1. give at least 2 reasoned arguments for whatever the question is covering. for example, you could say that using stem cells from an embryo means a much wider variety of diseases can be treated
  2. give at least 2 reasons arguments against whatever the question is covering
  3. end ur answer with a judgement this is whether ur for or against plus a reason for ur judgement
60
Q

what could u evaluate for stem cell

A

religious/ethical reasons as it can be seen as a living embryo
embryo cannot give consent
risk of rejection (all stem cells) - a recipients immune system attacks the transplanted stem cells. one way to overcome it is for the person to take immunosuppressant drugs which weaken the immune system
viral infection - could be transferred to the recipient

61
Q

what are 2 ways to overcome rejection when transplanting stem cells

A

one way is to take immunosuppressant drugs which weaken the immune system
another method to overcome rejection is called therapeutic cloning. this is when an embryo is made using DNA from the person receiving stem cells

62
Q

whats therapeutic cloning

A

this is when an embryo is made using DNA from the person receiving the stem cells

63
Q

whats the process of binary fission

A
  1. the circular DNA and plasmids replicate
    the cell gets bigger and the circular DNA strands move to opposite “poles” of the cell
    the cytoplasm divides and 2 daughter cells are produced. each daughter cell has one copy of circular DNA but can have a variable number of copies of the plasmid(s)
64
Q

what conditions can cause bacteria to divide quickly and whats the name of the bacteria that can take as little as 20 mins to replicate in the right environment

A

bacteria can divide quickly if in warm environment and lots of nutrients
some bacteria such as E. coli can take as little as 20 mins to replicate in the right environment

65
Q

bacterial cells are usually grown on what which is contained in what….

A

bacterial cells are usually grown on agar jelly which is in a petri dish this is called an agar plate

66
Q

whats an uncontaminated culture

A

is one where only one species of bacteria/microorganism is growing on the plate

67
Q

whats the steps involved in preparing an uncontaminated culture

A

ensure the petri dish and agar jelly are sterilised before use
pass the inoculating loop (use to transfer bacteria from the liquid in the bottle of the jelly) is sterilised by passing it through a bunsen burner flame
once the bacteria that have been spread secure the lid on the dish with adhesive tape
when opening the lid only open it when necessary/a little to prevent bacteria from the air getting in

68
Q

how r agar plates stored

A

agar plates are stored upside down in an incubator set to 25degree celcius. higher temps increase the risk of growing a human pathogen

69
Q

whats the bacterial growth curve

A

lag,exponential,stationary,death
when bacteria grow initially there may only be a few cells at the start.As each bacteria cell undergoes binary fission the number of bacterial cells begin to increase rapidly after each division
eventually the level of nutrients available starts to decrease and the reproduction rate equals the death rate
the death rate then becomes larger than the reproduction rate as nutrient availability is very low and waste products build up

70
Q

what are stem cells

A

some cells are undifferentiated. these are called stem cells. they can divide to produce lots more undifferentiated cells. they can also develop into different types of cell, depending on what instructions they’re given

71
Q

where r stem cells found

A

early human embryos

72
Q

what could embryonic stem cells be used to replace

A

faulty cells in sick people in the future

73
Q

in plants where are stem cells found

A

meristems

74
Q

definition of undifferentiated cell

A

they have not changed to become specialised for a particular job

75
Q
A

biology (7 decks)

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