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Cell Biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the two types of cells?

A

Prokaryotes and eukaroytes

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2
Q

What are the significant characteristics of prokaryotes?

A

All processes in cytosol, no internal membranes, nucleus absent

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3
Q

What is DNA packaged in, in prokaryotes?

A

Nucleoid

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4
Q

What is DNA packaged in, in eurokartyotes?

A

Packaged and enclosed by a double membrane (nuclear envelope?

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5
Q

How does mRNA leave the nucleus?

A

Passes from the nucleoplasm to the cytoplasm via holes called nuclear pores

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6
Q

How is DNA packaged?

A

With histones forming a complex called chromatin

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7
Q

How is chromatin packaged?

A

Euchromatin and more dense heterochromatin

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8
Q

Where are most active genes found?

A

Euchromatin

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9
Q

Where are proteins made?

A

Ribosomes

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10
Q

Where are ribosomes made?

A

The nucleolus assembles ribosomes

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11
Q

Where are ribosomes found?

A

The rough endoplasmic reticulum

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12
Q

What is the basic pathway for secretion?

A

RER, Golgi, Secretion/plasma membrane

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13
Q

What carries the proteins to the golgi?

A

Vesicles

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14
Q

What does the golgi do?

A

It processes and sorts proteins, then sends them on the correct path within the cell

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15
Q

What carries the products from the golgi?

A

Constitutive vesicle

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16
Q

What are the functions of the RER?

A

Site of membrane synthesis

Modifies proteins

Quality control

Signals stress

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17
Q

What process releases the secretory vesicle cargo out of the cell?

A

Exocytosis

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18
Q

What do vesicle travel along?

A

A motor protein along the microtubules

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19
Q

Where do microtubules emanate from?

A

The centrosome

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20
Q

What can also travel along microtubules?

A

Organelles

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21
Q

How do motor proteins know which way they are going?

A

There is both a plus and negative end on each “track” and the motor recognises this

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22
Q

What are centrioles?

A

An array of microtubules

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23
Q

What is an interesting point about centrioles?

A

If removed from a cell, the cell still functions normally

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24
Q

What process causes the uptake of particles by the cell?

A

Endocytosis

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25
Q

Endocytosis of large particles is called?

A

Phagocytosis

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26
Q

Endocytosis of small particles is called?

A

Pinocytosis

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27
Q

What organelle degrades matter within the cell?

A

Endosomes and lyosomes

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28
Q

What allows lysosomes to degrade?

A

A low pH allowing the use of hydrolytic enzymes

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29
Q

What is it called when portions of the cell are walled off and digested?

A

Autophagy

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30
Q

Why does autophagy occur?

A

The cell needs energy as it is starving

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31
Q

How do proteasomes work?

A

“Junk” protein is tagged (with ubiquitin) and within the cytoplasm, the proteasome recognises this and breaks down the protein

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32
Q

What is lumen?

A

A membrane that compartmentalises the cell

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33
Q

What aids vesicle budding?

A

Molecular scaffold supports called clathhrin

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34
Q

How did mitchondria end up in eukaryotes?

A

An archaea engulfed a bacterium which had mitchondria

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35
Q

Functions of mitochondria

A

Producde most of the ATP supply

Enables cell growth

Present in all eukaryotic cells

Contain their own DNA

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36
Q

What are microfilaments?

A

Thinner than microtubules, generates contractile forces enabling cells to move, parts of cells to move, cells to contract

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37
Q

What are intermediate filaments?

A

middle thickness, strength, support, some in cytoplasm some support nuclear envelope

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38
Q

What is smooth ER?

A

Connected domain of the RER membrane with no ribosomes and involved in lipid, steroid production and detoxification

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39
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

Break down some fatty acids, synthesis some specialised lipids, produces hydrogen peroxide but this is broken down by catalase

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40
Q

What is the difference between plant cells and animals cells?

A

Cell wall, chloroplasts, vacuole

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41
Q

In mitosis, what forms chromosomes?

A

Condensed chromatin

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42
Q

What is cell death called?

A

Apoptosis

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43
Q

What are totipotent cells?

A

A cell that can specialise into anything

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44
Q

What is a pluripotent cell?

A

A cell that has limited differentiation as it already be dervied from totipotent stem cells

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45
Q

How can cells communicate?

A

Through hormones

Local mediator

Neurotransmitter

Membrane-bound signal molecule

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46
Q

What are the two types of cilia?

A

Primary and motile cilium

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47
Q

How are microtubules aranged in primary cilium?

A

In 9 pairs

48
Q

How are microtubules arranged in motile cilium?

A

9 microtubule pairs- with a radial spoke coming from the arm, outer and iner dynein arm

2 motile cilium

49
Q

What does a motile cilium do that a primary cilium doesn’t?

A

Moves to the periphery of the cell to form cilia

50
Q

Where can loose fibrocollagenous tissues be found?

A

Around epithelia cells and organs

51
Q

Where can dense fibrocollagenous tissues be found?

A

Tendon, ligaments

52
Q

Where can reticular fibrocollagenous tissues be found?

A

Liver, lymph nodes

53
Q

What are the functions of fibroblasts?

A

Synthesize fibrous proteins

54
Q

What are the functions of macrophages?

A

Phagocytse foreign bodies/organisms

55
Q

What are the functions of mast cells?

A

Synthesize histamine and other mediators of inflammation

56
Q

What are the functions of plasma cells?

A

Synthesize antibodies

57
Q

What do eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have in common?

A

Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, ribosomes

58
Q

Describe the genetic material in eukaryotes

A

true nucleus bound by double membrane

Linear DNA

Organised into chromosomes

Large complex ribosomes

59
Q

Describe the genetic material in prokaryotes

A

No nucleus, has a nucleoid, no physical boundary

Circular DNA

70S ribosomes

60
Q

What are the structural components of bacteria?

A

Capsule, pili, flagellae, spores, cell wall, slime

61
Q

Describe the bacterial capsule and its function

A

Loose polysaccharide structure

Protects cell from phagocytosis

Protects cell from dessication

62
Q

Describe bacterial pili/frimbriae and its function

A

Appendage used for bacterial conjugation

Forms tube/bridge to enable transfer of plasmids

Highly antigenic

63
Q

What is pili made out of?

A

Oliogomeric pilin proteins

64
Q

Describe bacterial flagellae and its functions

A

Organs of locomotion, composed of flagellin protein, driven by rotary engine at anchor point on inner cell membrane

65
Q

What are the 4 structures of flagellae?

A

Monotrichous- single stranded

Lophotrichous- multiple from one location

Amphitrichous- bacteria is sausage shape with multiple strands on each end

Peritrichous- strands everywhere

66
Q

Describe bacterial spores and their function

A

Adapted for long-term survival allowing regrowth under suitable conditions

Hard, multi-layered coats making spore difficult to kill

67
Q

Give some examples of common diseases caused by sporing bacteria

A

Botulism- clostridium botulinum

Tetanus- clostridium tetani

68
Q

Describe bacterial slime and its function

A

Polysaccharide material

Secreted by some bacteria growing in biofilms

Protects against immune attack

Protecrs against eradication by antibiotics

69
Q

What can all bacteria be split into?

A

Gram-postive and gram negative

70
Q

What is the structure of a gram positive cell wall?

A

Peptidoglycan, cytoplasmic membrane, lipoteichoic acid, cytoplasm

71
Q

What is the structure of a gram-negative cell wall?

A

Outer membrane, peptidoglycan layer, cytoplasmic membrane, lipopolysaccharide, cytoplasm

72
Q

Describe the 4 steps of gram staining

A

Primary stain- all bacterial cells purple

Trapping agent

Decolourisation- alcohol/acetone

Counterstain- safranin- GN-pink GP-purple

73
Q

Describe the peptidoglycan layer

A

Polymer of sugar and amino acid, forms mesh-like layer outside plasma membrane

Alternating residues of N-acetylglucosamine + N- acetylmuramic acid

74
Q

Describe lipoteichoic acid

A

Complex of teichoic acid and lipids, provides cell rigidity, recognised by host immune cells

75
Q

Describe lipopolysaccharide in Gram negative bacteria

A

Elicits potent immune and inflammatory host responses

Produces endotoxins

76
Q

Describe outer membrane proteins

A

Lipoproteins and porins

Not endotoxins but do contribute to virulence

77
Q

How does a bacteria reproduce?

A

Binary fission, genetic information distributed equally

78
Q

Describe how the circular DNA in bacteria replicates

A

At the origin, two replication forks replicate in both directions until the whole sequence has finished. The termination point is then split

79
Q

What are the 4 phases of bacterial growth?

A

Lag, log, stationary and death

80
Q

What happens in the Lag phase of bacterial growth?

A

Represents the period of active growth

Bacteria prepare for reproduction

81
Q

What happens in the log phase of bacterial growth?

A

Cells divide at maximum rate, uniform replication

82
Q

What happens in the stationary phase of bacterial growth?

A

Cessation of growth, exhaustion of nutrients, accumulation of inhibitory end products, cell death=new cells

83
Q

What happens in the death phase of bacterial growth?

A

Number of dying cells exceed new cells

84
Q

What are the three types of bacterial recombination?

A

Conjugation

Transformation

Transduction

85
Q

Describe conjugation in reference to bacteria?

A

One bacterium connects itself to another through pilus to transfer genes

86
Q

Describe transformation in reference to bacteria?

A

Bacteria taking up DNA from their enviroment

87
Q

Describe transduction in reference to bacteria?

A

Involves the exchanging of bacterial DNA through bacteriophages

88
Q

How would you classify a bacteria?

A

Gram stain, cell shape, atmospheric preference, key enzymes, fastidiousness

89
Q

What does the shape cocci refer to?

A

Spherical

90
Q

What does the shape bacilli refer to?

A

Rod-shaped

91
Q

What does the shape spiral refer to?

A

Helical rod

92
Q

What are the structural components of viruses?

A

Nucleic acid, capsid, envelope, spikes

93
Q

What forms of nucleic acid can viruses have?

A

ds DNA
ss DNA
ds RNA
ss RNA

94
Q

What is a capsid in reference to a virus?

A

Protein coat/shell

Made of capsomeres-aggregated protomeres

95
Q

What are the different shapes of capsids?

A

Rod-like, polyheral, complex

96
Q

What is the viral envelope?

A

Amorphous structure surrounding some viruses, composed of lipid, protein and carbohydrates

97
Q

What are the viral spikes?

A

Glycoprotein projections arising from the envelope

Highly antigenic. may have enzymatic, adsorption or haemagglutin activity

98
Q

How to viruses replicate?

A

Uses host’s cellular machinery to replicate, produces progeny which leave host to infect other cells

99
Q

What are the 6 steps in viral replication?

A

Adsorption, penetration, replication, assembly, maturation and release

100
Q

Describe adsorption as a part of viral replication

A

Virus binds to host cell ,highly specific

101
Q

Describe penetration as a part of viral replication

A

Virus injects its genome into host cell, occurs by fusion. binding and ingestion

102
Q

Describe replication as a part of viral replication

A

Capsid digested by proteolytic enzymes, viral genome repliactes using the host’s cellular machinery

103
Q

Describe assembly as a part of viral replication

A

Viral components and enzymes are produced and begin to assemble

104
Q

Describe maturation as a part of viral replication

A

Virus fully develops

105
Q

Describe release of naked viruses as a part of viral replication

A

Occurs at site of nucleic acid replication

Viral enzymes break down bacterial cell wall

RNA viruses released as they are produced

DNA viruses expelled from the host cell- in inclusion bodies

106
Q

Describe release of enveloped viruses as a part of viral replication

A

Viruses migrate

Envelopes formed around nucleocapsids by budding of cell membrane

No inclusion bodies

107
Q

What are protozoa?

A

Single celled eukaryotes

108
Q

What are the classifications of protozoa?

A

Sporozoa-intracellular parasites

Flagellates- possess tail-like structure

Amoeba- use temporary cell-body projections

Ciliates- move by beating multiple hair-like structures

109
Q

What are fungi?

A

Eukaryotic

Multinucleate

110
Q

Describe the structure of fungi

A

Thick carbohydrate wall containing chitin and glucans

Grow as thread-like filaments (hyphae)

111
Q

How do fungi reproduce?

A

Asexually by budding or binary fission

112
Q

What are fungal infections called?

A

Mycoses

113
Q

What are helminths?

A

All parasitic worms

114
Q

What are the 3 important group of helminths?

A

Cestoda-tapeworms

Trematoda- flukes

Nematoda-roundworms

115
Q

How are helminths transmitted?

A

Via intermediate host

Fecal-oral route

Active skin penetration

Injection

Cell Biology (20 decks)

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