CCS401 Genel Cerrahi 3 (karaciğer vs)) Flashcards

1
Q

Cantlie line ve falciform ligament ligament nedir, karaciğerde neleri ayırırlar?

A

Cantlie çizgisi fonksiyonel bir ayırımdır, damar yapısına göre karaciğerin sağ ve sol loblarını ayırır. Hayali bir çizgidir.

Falciform ligament anatomik bir yapı olup, karaciğerin ön yüzünde sağ ve sol lobları ayırır ancak bu ayırım fonksiyonel değildir. Gerçek bir ligamenttir.

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2
Q

Karaciğerde kaç segment vardır?

A

8

Sol lob: 2-4. Left lateral–> 2,3 medial–> 4
Sağ lob: 5-8. Anteromedial–> 5 ve 8, posterolateral–> 6 ve 7
Sol sağ ayıran: cantile line
Caudate lob (segment 1): Liver in liver. Sağ veya solda kabul edilmeyen bir lobdur.

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3
Q

Caudate lobe (segment 1) hakkında bilgi.

A

Portal ven dallarından hem sağ hem de sol lobdan kan alabilir. Kendi safra yollarına sahiptir ve bağımsız bir safra drenajı vardır. Bağımsız bir lobdur, liver in liver.

Direk IVC’ye drene olur. Bu nedenle Budd chiari sendromunda hypertrophy olur.

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4
Q

Budd chiari sendromu nedir?

A

Sağ kalp yetmezliği olmaksızın karaciğerde venöz çıkış akımın obstrüksiyonuna bağlı fonksiyon bozukluğu ve portal hipertansiyon bulguları ile karakterize nadir görülen ve mortal seyredebilen bir hastalıktır.
(Yetersiz)

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5
Q

Kaç tane hepatic vein bulunur?

A

3

Left right middle.

Not: Middle ve left, IVC’ye dökülmeden önce ortak bir trunk oluşturur ve ona dökülürler.

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6
Q

Hepatik lobülün içeriği nedir? (Portal triad)

A

Bile duct + portal vein branch + hepatic artery branch.

Lobülün ortasında central vein bulunur. Portal vein branchları buraya dökülür. O da hepatic vein, ardından da IVC’ye dökülür.

karaciğer sinüzoidleri de bulunur, onlar da karaciğer lobüllerinde bulunan genişlemiş kapiller damarlardır.

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7
Q

Karaciğerde en çok metastatik kanserler mi görülür, primerler mi?

A

Metastatik.

En çok da kolondan metastaz yapar.

Diğer metastaz yapan kanserler: Mide ve bağırsak kanserleri, Meme kanseri, Akciğer kanseri, Pankreas kanseri, Melanom gibi cilt kanserleri

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8
Q

Malignant primer karaciğer tümörleri nelerdir?

A

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)

Hepatoblastoma (children)

Cholangiocarcinoma:
-Cystadenocarsinoma
-Hemangioendothelioma
-Angiosarcoma

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9
Q

Hepatoblastoma’nın özelliği nedir?

A

Çocuklarda en sık görülen primer karaciğer tümörüdür.

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10
Q

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) info

A

En sık görülen primer karaciğer tümörüdür.
Very common and 5th in cancer deaths worldwide
80% on the basis of chronic liver disease (cirrhosis)
Poor prognosis

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11
Q

HCC risk faktörleri.

A

Siroz (AKA kronik karaciğer hastalığı).

Sirozun risk faktörleri (sıktan nadire): 1) nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), 2) Hepatit B (daha sık), 3) Hepatit C (daha zararlı), 4) alkol

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12
Q

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) info.

A

NAFLD’nin ilerlemiş alt türüdür, (non-alkolik yağlı karaciğer hastalığı). Diğeri de Basit steatoz hastalığıdır. Onda sadece yağlanma vardır, iltihap yoktur.

NASH risk faktörleri: Metabolik sendrom, obezite, DM2

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13
Q

HCC teşhisi için hangi yöntemlere başvururuz?

A

USG, CT, MRI, PET-CT
Abnormal LFTs (liver function test)–> bunlar yüksekse anlamlı ancak düşükse anlamlı değil
Routine screening for chronic liver disease (chronic liver disease hastalarının HCC geliştirme riski %30.)
AFP (Alfa fetoprotein) (tümör markerı): HCC
Ca 19-9 (tümör markerı): Cholangiocarcinoma

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14
Q

Siroz oluşturan mekanizmalar?

A

Alkolik hepatit, hemochromatosis, primary biliary cirrhosis, alpha1 antitrypsin deficiency and so on.

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15
Q

Malignant hepatic tümör oluşumu ile alakalı olabilecek ko karsinojen besin maddesi nedir?

A

Aspergillus molds–> aflotoxin

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16
Q

Symtoms of malignant hepatic tumors

A

1/3 are asymptomatic.

Symptoms–> abdominal pain, fever.
Kan değerleri–> AFP (alpha fetoprotein) yükselmesi (fetal plazmada bulunur normalde, tümör üretir.), ALP ve GGT yükselmesi (liver cell damage durumuda artarlar.)

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17
Q

HCC tedavisi nasıl yapılır?

A

LIVER TRANSPLANTATION–> en iyi yöntem
Curative resectionda R0 (kitle kalmaması) kür olabilir ancak R1 (mikro kitle kalması) ve R2 (makro kitle kalması) imkansız kür olmaları.

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18
Q

Neden karaciğer transplantı en iyi HCC tedavi yöntemi?

A

HCC multicentric bir tümör. Recurrence rate is high after local therapies. Ayrıca, transplant altta yatan chronic liver disease’i de çözer. Dolayısıyla karaciğer yetmezliği ve karsinojenik faktör ortadan kalkmış olur.

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19
Q

HCC’de tümör damarlara yakınsa bu ne anlama gelir?

A

Tümör damarlara ne kadar yakınsa prognoz o kadar kötü olma ihtimali taşır.

Çünkü, Vascular invasion predicts the prognosis in HCC !!!

Not: Tümör büyüklüğü de etkiler, ne kadar büyükse metastaz riski o kadar fazladır.

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20
Q

Ablation (nokta atışı tümör yakma) as palliative (azaltıcı/ hafifletici) methods

A

Radiofrequency Ablation (RFA) / Microwave ablation
Chemoembolisation
Selective internal radiation therapy
(SIRT; also known as radio-embolisation) microspheres containing radionuclides that emit beta radiation directly into the tumour via the hepatic artery.

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21
Q

Info abt Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma

A

HCC’den sonra 2. en sık görülen primer hepatik tümör. Highly proliferative malignant tumor originating from the bile duct epithelium.
Kronik karaciğer hastalığı ile alakasız. Genelde asemptomatik ve erken yakalamak çok zor çünkü belirti verene dek (sarılık, abd pain/ mass, ascites, hepatomegaly, karaciğer yetmezliği vs) çok ilerlemiş oluyor.

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22
Q

Types of Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma

A

Intrahepatic: located proximal to the second degree bile ducts

Subtypes include superficial spreading, intraductal, periductal, and mass forming
-Superficial-spreading and intraductal subtypes have the best prognosis
-Periductal and mass-forming subtypes have the worst prognosis

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23
Q

Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma, treatment.

A

R0 resection
Transplantation is not recommended due to high recurrence

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24
Q

Benign karaciğer tümörleri nelerdir? (sıklık sırasına göre)

A

1) Cavernous hemangioma (AKA hepatic hemangioma)
2) Focal Nodular hyperplasia’s
3) Hepatocellular adenomas

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25
Q

Info abt cavernous/ hepatic hemangiomas?

A

Most common benign liver tumor.
Hemanjiyoma: kan damarlarının benign tümörüdür.
Bu hastalıkta damar yumakları oluşur. Ama bunlar kendi kendilerine patlamaz. O nedenle çok büyümedikçe ameliyat etmeye gerek yoktur.

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26
Q

How do we diagnose cavernous/ hepatic hemangiomas?

A

Usg, CT, MRI

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27
Q

Info abt Focular nodular hyperplasia (FNH)?

A

a benign liver lesion that is composed of a proliferation of hyperplastic hepatocytes surrounding a central stellate scar. Typically, FNH is a solitary lesion that is more commonly seen in females. No malignancy risk.

Başka bir tanım: localized aggregates of rapidly reproducing liver cells.

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28
Q

Info abt hepatic adenoma.

A

Oral kontraseptif kullanımı ile bağlantılıdır, F> M.

Karaciğer epitellerinin benign tümörüdür. (hepatositler epitel hücresi galiba??)

Maligne dönerse alınmalıdır. (rezeksiyon)
Von gierke hastalığı ile bağlantılıdır.

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29
Q

Info abt echinococcus granulosus

A

Causes Hydatid disease (AKA hydatidosis or echinococcosis)
The oncosphere embryos emerge in the small intestine and migrate primarily to the liver but also to the lungs, bones, and brain.
The embryos develop into large fluid-filledhydatid cysts

Dogs are the definitive hosts. The intermediate hosts are sheep.Humans are dead-end intermediate hosts

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30
Q

What does E. granulosus cause

A

Hyatid disease

The cyst fluid contains parasite antigens, which can sensitize the host.
Later, if the cyst ruptures spontaneously or during trauma or surgical removal, life-threateninganaphylactic shockcan occur.
Rupture of a cyst can also spread protoscoleces widely.

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31
Q

Hydatid disease (AKA hydatidosis or echinococcosis) complications

A

Infection – liver abscess
Rupture into the biliary tree, cholangitis
Rupture through the diaphragm (bronchobiliary fistula)
Intraperitoneal rupture
Anaphylaxis

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32
Q

Hydatid disease (AKA hydatidosis or echinococcosis) treatment.

A

Puncture,Aspiration,Infusion of scolicide, andReaspiration (PAIR) can be used instead of surgery.

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33
Q

Info abt Echinococcus multilocularis (Alveolar Echinococcosis)

A

Balgamda safra görürüz.

Erzurum ve Karsa endemik. Kanser gibi düşünülmesi gereken bir hastalıktır. Karaciğer transplantı dahi gerekenilit, PAIR işe yaramaz.

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34
Q

What are dorsal and ventral pancreatic buds?

A

Ventral ve dorsal pankreas tomurcukları (veya pankreas divertikülü ), insan embriyogenezi sırasında duodenumun endodermal lining çıkıntılarıdır. Yetişkin pankreası oluşturmak üzere birleşirler.

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35
Q

What does the dorsal and ventral pancreatic buds form?

A

Dorsal pb–> Body, tail and most of the head.

Ventral pb–> Rest of the head.

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36
Q

hepatopancreatic ampulla nedir?

A

Water kabarcığı. Oddi spinchter de water kabarcığının etrafında bulunur.

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37
Q

Pankreas ve hepatobiliary sistem duodenuma nasıl açılır?

A

Right + left hepatic ducts from liver = common hepatic duct.
Common hepatic duct + cystic duct = common bile duct (koledok)
Koledok + pancreatic duct = Common duct (%80). Bu common duct da water kabarcığından duodenuma açılır. (Duodenumda da birleşebilir, hangisi daha sık görülür? emin değilim.) Oddi spinchter de water kabarcığının etrafında bulunur.

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38
Q

Hepatocystic triangle (AKA calot triangle) nedir?

A

Kolesistektomide cerrahların yararlandığı bir üçgendir. Bu sayede, içinden geçen kistik arter gibi yapılar yanlışlıkla kesilmemiş olur.

Sınırları: Üstte karaciğer, yanlarda common hepatic duct ve cystic duct.

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39
Q

What do we use for imaging of bile ducts?

A

USG–> İndirekt bulguları önemli
CT–> Kitle gösterir
MRCP–> Safra yollarını net gösterir (tanı)
ERCP–> Water’den yapılır, Hem tanı hem tedavi yapar.
PTC (percutaneous transhepatic cholangiogram)–> X-ray of the bile ducts. ERCP daha çok tercih edilir. Proximalde (????)
HIDA scan–> safra kaçağı varsa
PET scan–> Tümör şüphesinde
X-ray–> Safra taşlarını göstermez, üriner taş gösterir.

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40
Q

What are the diseases of the biliary tree?

A

Congenital: biliary atresia, biliary cysts
Tumors: benign or malignant
*Choledocholithiasis: Common bile duct stones
Benign biliary strictures
Primary Sclerosing Cholecystitis (PSC)

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41
Q

What are the choledochal cyst types?

A

Type 1, Fusiform–> Most common variety (80%-90%) involving saccular or fusiform dilatation of a portion or entire CBD (koledok) with normal intrahepatic ducts
Type 2, Diverticulum–> Isolated diverticulum protruding from the CBD.
Type 3, choledocele–> Arise from dilatation of duodenal portion of CBD.
Type 4, intra & extrahepatic–> Characterized by multiple dilatations of the intrahepatic and extrahepatic biliary tree.
Type 5, caroli–> Cystic dilatation of intrahepatic biliary ducts.
-tip1 ve 5 sorulur-
-Hepsi konjenital sanırm???-

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42
Q

Info abt congenital choledochal cysts.

A

Common in children, may stay asymptomatic for years
Cholangitis is the most common sign.
Type 1 is the most common.
They are Precancerous: Resection and bilioenteric continuity

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43
Q

Treatment of caroli disease, type 5 choledochal cyst?

A
  • Resection if confined to one lobe
  • Bilobar liver tx (genelde mutlilokal olduğu için liver transplant gerekiyor)
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44
Q

Info abt benign biliary strictures (daralma)?

A

Hiçbir zaman kendi kendine olmaz, cerrahi işlem sonucu ortaya çıkar
History of cholecystectomy (en sık sebep) or bile duct operation–> (most patients - 90%)
Upper GI operations (safra yoluna yakın ameliyatlar)
PSC, pancreatitis, RT (radiation therapy), blunt trauma, bilioenteric anastomosis, Liver Tx

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45
Q

Info abt prehepatic, hepatic and posthepatic jaundice?

A

prehepatic–> hemoliz. İndirekt bilirubin artar. LDH artar (Laktat Dehidrogenaz)
hepatic–> Siroz, akut hepatit, hepatik enzim eksikliği, AST increase
posthepatic/ obstructive–> Taş, tümör. Direkt bilirubin artar. ALP GGT artar.

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46
Q

What do we observe in benign biliary stricture?

A

Increased direct bilirubin, ALP and GGT–>
Posthepatic/ obstructive jaundice!!
Jaundice and cholangitis (CRP, lökositoz, ateş, kısacası enfeksiyon bulguları)
MRCP, ERCP, PTC (bunu niye hoca eklemiş anlamadım)

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47
Q

Treatment of benign biliary stricture?

A

Treatment: The fibrotic stricture must be resected and bilioenteric continuity must
be obtained
Stenting and ballooning: recurrence is high (bunu çok tercih etmiyoruz, en iyisi darlığın çıkarılması)

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48
Q

What is Roux-en-Y Hepaticojejunostomy?

A

It is a surgical procedure used to create a connection (anastomosis) between the hepatic duct (or the common bile duct) and a segment of the jejunum in a Roux-en-Y configuration.

Safra kesesi ile pankreasın birleştiği yer değişiyor. Duodenum değil de jejenum.

Indications–> Bile duct injury, Bile duct stricture, Bile duct tumors or cancers, Choledochal cysts (congenital bile duct cysts), Biliary atresia

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49
Q

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (safra kanalı enflamasyonu) (PSC) info.

A

+ Autoimmune, safra yollarında kronik hasar.
+Chronic, progressive, inflammatory disease of the intra- and extrahepatic bile ducts, multiple strictures
+Accompanying inflammatory bowel disease (%50), CROHN!
+ Jaundice, pruritus (itching) and cholangitis (recurent)
+May be asymptomatic with elevated LFTs (liver function test)

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50
Q

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) görüntülemede nasıl görünür?

A

Tesbih gibi bir darlık, şeklinde görülür.

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51
Q

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) treatment?

A

+Dilatation by endoscopic or percutaneous methods
+Avoid Surgery
+Definitive treatment : Liver Tx for patients developing liver failure (transplant kesin tedavi)

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52
Q

How does secondary sclerosing cholangitis occur?

A

Secondary sclerosing cholangitis; if secondary to an operation and or trauma

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53
Q

Choledocholithiasis info?

A

+Koledok taşları. Genelde safra kesesi taşlarına sekonderdir. Primer common bile duct taşları nadirdir.
+10-15% of patients having cholelithiasis (safra kesesi taşı) develop choledocholithiasis
+Might be asymptomatic in %50 of the patients with choledocholithiasis and the stone may pass to intestine through sphincter of Oddi without any problems.

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54
Q

Choledocholithiasis symptoms?

A

+Asymptomatic in %50 of the patients with choledocholithiasis.

+Symptoms: colic pain, intermittent jaundice (tıkanma varsa), pruritus (kaşıntı. Bilirubin ve safra tuzları ciltte kaşıntı yapar.), acholic (pale) stool and dark urine (çay rengi), cholangitis (safra yolları enflamasyonu), pancreatitis, liver abscess.

Neden intermittent anlamadım.

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55
Q

Choledocholithiasis lab and imaging results?

A

Lab: Increased bilirubin, ALP and GGT (obstructive jaundice)

USG: Direct visualization of the stone may be difficult. Indirect finding dilated CBD (common bile duct). Normally 4-5 mm, pathologic over 8-10 mm. (kanal dilate ise obstruction düşünmeliyiz)

ERCP: Tedavi + teşhis. Koledok taşından şüpheleniyorsak ilk bunu yapmalıyız.

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56
Q

Cholangitis info?

A

safra yolları iltihabı.

Bacterial: Gr (-) enterics EN SIK ETKEN, Gr (+) (strep-staf), anaerobics

Lab: ↑↑↑ Bilirubin, ALP and GGT (obstructive jaundice), ↑↑↑ WBC, CRP

Önemli bir sepsis etkeni.

(ALP GGT Bilirubin artışına direk obs jaundice yapıştırabilir miyiz?)

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57
Q

What is charcot’s triad and reynold’s pentad seen in cholangitis?

A

charcot’s triad: right upper quadrant pain, jaundice and fever

reynold’s pentad: Charcot’s triad + shock (due to hypotension) + altered mental status (confusion.). Serebral perfüzyon bozukluğu nedeniyle ciddi sepsis görülür, hasta ölebilir.

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58
Q

How is the treatment of cholangitis done?

A

*I.v. Fluids (hydration) and i.v. antibiotics (şokla savaşıyoruz.)
* Abscess = Drainage (suppurative cholangitis) –> kolanjit safra yolları absesi gibi.
* Drainage of the biliary system (decompression) either endoscopic or
percutaneous way –> mutlaka yapılmalı.
* Surgical drainage is the last source due to higher mortality (!!! try to avoid)

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59
Q

What is Mirizzi syndrome?

A

Mirizzi syndrome–> common bile duct/ koledokta taşın tıkanmaya sebep olması ve bunun sonucunda obstruction ve sarılığa neden olduğu nadir bir komplikasyondur. Emergency surgery!

Akut kolesistite bağlı tıkanma sarılığı oluşur.
Jaundice can also be caused by compression of the common bile duct by a stone in the neck of the gallbladder or in the cystic duct.

(Bunların o zaman koledokolithiasis ile farkları nedir?)

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60
Q

Gallbladder adenocarcinoma info?

A

Cholecystitis–> constant inflammation–> cell turnover–> increased genetic mistakes –> increased carcinogenesis.

Yayılma ve metastaz olasılığı yüksektir.

Safra taşı precancerous sayılır. Kanser riskini arttırır. Bu şekilde glandular dokuda tümör oluşur.

61
Q

Gallbladder adenocarcinomada daha sonra neler gelişebilir?

A

Calcification and fibrosis causes porcelain gallbladder.

Porcelain gallbladder: inner gallbladder wall being encrusted with calcium. The wall becomes brittle, hard, and often takes on a bluish hue. AKA calcified gallbladder, calcifying cholecystitis.

Kanser riski artar, pg hastalarınının yüzde onunda görürüz. (%10dan emin değilim.)
Kolesistektomi hastlaarında kanser riski daha yüksek (doğru mu? doğruysa neden doğru?)

62
Q

Gallbladder adenocarcinoma risk factors?

A

Constant inflammation, infection (salmonella, helicobacter), hereditary syndromes (gardner syn, neurofibromatosis), congenital abnormalities (abnormal pancreaticobiliary junction.)
(pb junc ne kadar uzunsa o kadar sorun çünkü pancreatic juice bile ile tepkimeye giriyor ya da korozif oluyor diye düşünülüyor) (pankreasın digestive enzimleri reflü yapıp gallbladdera dönebilir. Kanser riski artar.)

63
Q

Info abt gallbladder polyps

A

<1cm ise np.
+ Polypoid lesions of the gallbladder: associated with increased risk of
cancer.
* This is particularly true for polyps measuring >10 mm, which carry a 25%
risk of malignancy.

64
Q

Galbladder polyp info 2

A
  • Solitary or sessile polys, or those showing rapid growth on serial imaging, particularly if in the presence of gallstones or age >50 are also concerning for malignancy
    +When such findings are identified, the patient should have their
    gallbladder removed, even if they are asymptomatic.
65
Q

Are cholesterol polyps precancerous?

A

No, they are not precancerous. (they are not true neoplasms !!!)

66
Q

Info abt Cancer of the gallbladder?

A

is a rare malignancy, associated with gallstones (70%-88% of cases) most common in women (F:M = : 2/1)
* Locally invasive into the liver and locoregional lymph nodes and often metastatic to noncontiguous areas of liver and the peritoneum
* May be diagnosed preoperatively, intraoperatively, or postoperativel

67
Q

Prognosis of gallbladder cancer.

A

Most patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage and the prognosis for these patients is very poor.

If diagnosed when the cancer has not invaded beyond the muscular layer of the gallbladder wall, 5-year survival is 50% (buradan soru gelebilir.)

68
Q

What are some gallbladder cancer types?

A

By cell type:
* Adenocarcinoma (majority of cases) (bad prognosis)
* Squamous cell carcinoma or adenosquamous differentiation (about 5% of patients)
* Mesenchymal (eg, carcinosarcoma) or carcinoid differentiation

Histologic graded (çok önemli değil): G1–> well dif, G2–> moderate diff, G3–> poor dif

69
Q

Cancer of the gallbladder, treatment and diagnosis.

A

Diagnostics: USG, CT, MRI
* Surgery is the only potentially curative therapy for gallbladder cancer; in the absence of absolute contraindications, it should be attempted. R0 REZEKSIYONU! ONLY CURATIVE THERAPY! GOLD STANDART
* Adjuvant chemotherapy, usually gemcitabine- or fluoropyrimidine-based (and sometimes followed by chemoradiation therapy), is usually
* Unresectable or metastatic disease is managed with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or chemoradiation, sometimes with biliary drainage for palliation of obstructive jaundice. Immunotherapy with pembrolizumab may be appropriate for select patients in these categories

70
Q

How is the operative management of resectable diseases are done?

A

+Either simple or radical cholecystectomy
+ Simple cholecystectomy is excision of the gallbladder only
+ Radical cholecystectomy is cholecystectomy with limited hepatic resection (typically involving en bloc resection of segments IVb and V) and portal lymphadenectomy
R0–> Surveillance, R1 R2 or + regional lymph nodes–> adjuvant chemotherapy

71
Q

Info abt EXTRAHEPATIC cholangiocarcinoma

A

Safra yolu carcinoması. HCCden sonra en sık görülen karaciğer primer tümörü.

Genelde upper third kısımda görülür (AKA klatskin tümörü.)

72
Q

Tumors of extrahepatic bile ducts?

A

Benign tm: papillom, adenom (extremely rare)
*Adenocarcinoma 95% (Cholangiocarcinoma),
* Very rare leiomyosarcoma, cystadenocarcinoma, carcinoid, etc.
* 6th, 7th decade

73
Q

Risk factors for EXTRAHEPATIC cholangiocarcinoma

A

Bile stasis, chronic infection and irritation, bilary stones,
*Choledochal cysts (Congenital condition characterized by cystic dilation of bile ducts and resulting in reflux of pancreatic enzymes and cholestasis)
*PSC, Clonorchis sinensis (uzakdoğuda görülen parazit), carcinogenic substances, Several acquired genetic mutations: Lynch syndrome

74
Q

Types of klatskin tumors

A

Type 1: confined to CHD (en iyi prognoz, ana hepatiğe sınırlı çünkü)
Type 2: involve the bifurcation (R0 rez)
Type 3. invasion of secondary bile ducts, Type 4 involve both secondary bile ducts (çoğu ameliyat edilmez, stent koyup sarılığı engelliyoruz.)

75
Q

Lab, types, symptoms and and diagnosis for cholangiocarcinoma

A

Morphologically, they are divided into nodular (the most common type), scirrhous, diffusely infiltrating, or papillary.
*Jaundice, itching (pruritus), mild right upper quadrant pain, anorexia, fatigue, and weight loss
* Lab: T.Bilirubin, ALP, GGT elevation , CA 19-9 (tumor marker, pancreatitiste de yüksek olabilir.)
* Diagnosis: PTC, ERCP, MRCP, USG and CT

76
Q

Treatment of cholangiocarcinoma

A

*Upper 1/3 (Klatskin tm): Resection of the bile ducts + right or left hepatic lobectomy. Caudate lobe invasion !!!
* Mid 1/3: resection of extahepatic bile ducts
* Lower 1/3: pancreatoduodenectomy (Whipple) –> pankreas başı kanserine yapılan tedavi.

77
Q

Cholangiocarcinoma prognosis

A

: Locally invasive, vital structures (portal vein, hepatic
artery, liver parancyhma)
* Curative resection R0: 3 year survival 25-35 %

78
Q

Palliation methods for Cholangiocarcinoma

A

Stenting (PTC-ERCP)
*Chemo-radiotherapy (bu ikisi)
*Brachitherapy (çok uygulanıyor)

79
Q

What is Courvoisier’s law?

A

Courvoisier ilkesi, hafif sarılığın eşlik ettiği ağrısız, elle tutulur şekilde büyümüş bir safra kesesinin safra taşlarından kaynaklanma ihtimalinin düşük olduğunu belirtir. Genellikle terim, karnın sağ üst kadranının fizik muayene bulgusunu tanımlamak için kullanılır.

+ jaundice, palpable gallbladder (nontender)= Periampullary tumors (pancreas, papilla, distal choledochus, duodenum (2nd segment))

80
Q

Periampullary tumors vs choledochal stones

A

Courvosier’s law periampullary tümörde vardır ancak koledok taşında yoktur. Çünkü, koledok taşında kese fibrotik olur ve genişleyemez (bunu daha detaylı araştır ama şart değil)

Gallstone durumunda da tender gallbladder görürüz. CL’de enlarged and palpable gallbladder vardır.

81
Q

Cyclosporin nedir?

A

It is an immunosuppressive drug that acts by blocking IL-2 release. Organ nakli konusunda çağ atlatan bir buluştur.

82
Q

Beyin ölümü gerçekleşmiş birinden organ alabilir miyiz?

A

Evet. Beyin ölümü, hastanın tekrardan bilinç kazanmayacağı ve desteksiz nefes alamayacağı anlamına gelir. Yasal olarak da ölü sayılırlar. O nedenle bağış için adaydırlar.
Zaten, ölülerden organ alamayız çünkü çoğu organ 5 6 dkya gider, yoğun bakımda ölmüş hasta lazımdır cadaver donation için.

83
Q

Canlı donörlü karaciğer nakillerinin + ve -leri nelerdir?

A

+ –> donör havuzu artar, bekleme süresi azalır, ameliyat hazırlıklı yapılabilir, organın durumu daha iyidir.

  • –> sağlıklı bireye risk oluşturur, daha çok vascular ve biliary kompliksayon yaşanma riski olur, özenli takın çalışması gerektirir.
84
Q

Karaciğer tx, donöre riskleri nedir?

A

sağ lob: 0.5 mortalite. Sol: 0.2-0.3% mortalite. Uzun süreçte morbidite yoktur. Karaciğer 3 ayda rejenere olur. İlk bir hafta atlatılırsa genelde sorun çıkmaz.

85
Q

Transplantasyon türleri nedir?

A

Autograft, ısograft, allograft, xenograft

86
Q

En çok hangi transplantasyon türünü kullanıyoruz?

A

Allograft. Aynı cinsten iki birey arasındaki tx tir.

87
Q

Transplantasyon için ab0 ve rh kan gruplarının aynı olması gerekli midir?

A

Rh faktörü nakilde önemsizdir çünkü rh antijenleri dokuda bulunmaz.
AB0 antijenleri ise dokuda bulunur. 0 genel vericidir çünkü antijen yoktur. O nedenle, AB0 uyumu önemlidir.

88
Q

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) info?

A

These are antigens that make up the human leukocyte system. They present fragments of proteins to T lymphocytes. This leads to recognition and elimination of foreign antigen with great specifity.
Anti class 1 antigens: HLA-, B, C are expressed by all nucleated cells.
Anti class 2 antigens: Immune system cells are expressing them.

89
Q

What is allorecognition?

A

Immune system discriminating self and nonself cells and tissues. T cells play a crucial role.

90
Q

Which cells play role in organ rejection?

A

T cells are the starter, followed by B cell activation and subsequent antibody production. T cell growth factor interleukin 2 is also so important.
Rejection is a result of an attack of activated T cells.

91
Q

What exactly is organ rejection?

A

Immune reaction to destroy the transplanted organ. Universally happens after every organ transplant. Can be suppressed by immunosuppression and this has to be lifelong.

92
Q

What is graft?

A

Tıbbi olarak graft, bir vücut bölgesinden alınan doku veya organın başka bir bölgeye veya kişiye nakledilmesi anlamına gelir. Graft, alındığı bölgede kan dolaşımıyla beslenmeden, yeni yerine yerleştirildikten sonra vücudun doğal iyileşme süreçleriyle canlı kalmaya başlar. Graftlar, organ nakli veya doku onarımı gibi birçok tıbbi işlemde kullanılır.
(chatgpt organ rejection ile aynı şey olarak alıyor ama doğru mu bilemedim.)

93
Q

What are the three graft rejection types?

A

Hyperacute, acute and chronic.

94
Q

Info abt hyperacute rejection?

A

Immediately starts after the transplant due to preformed antibodies. Organ is lost in 1 2 days. Humoral mechanism (Yani, başrol B lenfosit!)
Normal bir durum değil, sadece organa karşı antikorların halihazırda bulunması ile mümkün.
Preformed antibodies can be seen by cross match test.
Çok nadir.

95
Q

What is a cross match test?

A

A test in which donor’s cells are mixed with the recipient’s serum and then the cells are observed for any destruction. Kan naklindeki aynı mantık, cross match + ise hyperacute rejection riski olabileceğinden bunu önleriz.

96
Q

Info abt acute rejection?

A

Most common rejection type. Usually within first 3 months. Can be suppressed by increasing the level of immunosuppression. Mainly cellular immune system (T lymphocytes!!!).
Tedaviye yanıt verir.

97
Q

Info abt chronic rejection?

A

Both humoral and cellular mechanism (B+ T, daha çok B dominant). Functional units within the ducts are gradually decreased (ör: nephrons and tubuli, bile ducts, myocytes, pancreatic islets etc.)
Fibrosis and vascular changes. Irreversible damage (organ kaybı ile sonuçlanır.)
Long term organ insufficiency.
<5%

98
Q

How can failure after tx might occur?

A

Complications related to surgery, infection, primary organ dysfunction and non-function, rejection, recurrence of the primary disease, drug toxicities, posttransplant malignancy, GVHD (graft versus host disease).
Most important factor is timing after transplant.

99
Q

GVHD (graft versus host disease) nedir?

A

Takılan organdaki immün hücrelerin hastaya saldırmasıdır. Çok nadir bir olaydır. En çok kemik iliği, karaciğer ve böbrekte görürüz. Kan naklinden sonra da görebiliriz. Ölümcüldür, bütün organlara saldırır. HLA yakınsa kanda GVHD olabilir.

100
Q

Orthotopic ve heterotopic nedir?

A

Orthotopic–> kendi yerine takılan organlar: kalp ve karaciğer örnektir.
Heterotopic –> farklı yere takılan organlardır: pankreas ve böbrek örnektir.
(özellikle, böbrekte diğer böbrekleri çıkarmıyoruz ve 3. tx böbreği daha aşağıya takıyoruz.)

101
Q

Which patients have the eligibility for bariatric surgery?

A

Patients with a BMI ≥ 40 who have failed conventional weight loss attempts and are properly educated and motivated for surgery.

Patients with a BMI 35 ≤ ≤40 who have comorbidities related to their obesity that are imminently life-threatening or causing severe lifestyle limitations.

Decreased BMI within a weight loss program before surgery is not a contraindication for surgery

For patients with weight regain, waiting to reach their previous BMI is not necessary for surgery.

102
Q

What is metabolic surgery?

A

Manipulation of an organ system to achieve a biological result for a potential health gain”

103
Q

What is the difference of bariatric and metabolic surgery?

A

Metabolic surgery is used with the specific intent to address diabetes and metabolic dysfunctions that have failed to respond to lifestyle and medication changes as opposed to obesity per se.
Bariatric surgery is for all patients with a very high weight who need weight loss surgery.

104
Q

Which of the patients are eligible for metabolic surgery?

A

BMI > 35, patients unable to control diabetes with pharmacological and lifestyle arrangements √ (suggestion)
BMI < 35, no enough evidence for surgery
BMI 30-35 patients unable to control diabetes with pharmacological and lifestyle arrangements √ (suggestion)

Apart from BMI:
For glisemic control only
Control of lipid level
Surgery for decreasing the cardiovascular risk

105
Q

What are some important bariatric surgery types?

A

Adjustable gastric banding (mideye kelepçe takma)
Sleeve gastrectomy
Roux en Y gastic bypass
Biliopancreatic diversion/ duodenal switch (alt türü)
(en az kilo verdirenden en çok olana doğru sıraladım.)

106
Q

Which preoperative endoscopy findings might cause the surgeon to reconsider performing bariatric surgery?

A

GERD
Helicobacter pylori / eradication
Incidental lesions
Crohn’s disease

107
Q

Info abt adjustable gastric band? (mide kelepçesi.)

A

Pros–> No anatomic alteration, removable and adjustable.
Cons–> High explant rate (removal of the band laparoscopically), erosion, slip/ prolapse.
Target weight loss: 20-25%
(Artık çok tercih edilmiyor.)

108
Q

Info abt sleeve gastrectomy (mide küçültme ameliyatı)

A

Pros–> Easy to perform, no anastomosis, reproducible (tekrar yapılabilir), few long term complications, metabolic effects, versatile for challenging patient populations
Cons–> Leaks are difficult to manage, little data beyond 5 years, 20-30% gerd risk.
Target weight loss: 25- 30%

109
Q

In which patients should we consider sleeve gastrectomy?

(BU ARDADA, HOCA YAZMADIĞINDAN BUNLARA YAPILIR MI YOKSA YAPILMAZ MI ANLAMADIM MUTLAKA ÖĞREN)

A

May be a significant reflux causing operation
BMI < 50, or very high BMI where technically difficult to perform GBP (staged?)
Early onset of DM, non-insulin dependent
Chronic NSAIDs, steroid use, future access to duodenum/ampulla/surveillance
Crohn’s disease

110
Q

Laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy (LSG) and GERD?

A

De novo GERD symptoms in initial reports
26 – 31%
Stricture + Neofundus development
Need for revisional surgery
6 years follow up after LSG
De novo GERD 21% (anlamadım, 26 31 mi 21 mi.)

111
Q

Info abt Roux-en-Y gastric bypass? (BU ARDADA, HOCA YAZMADIĞINDAN BUNLARA YAPILIR MI YOKSA YAPILMAZ MI ANLAMADIM MUTLAKA ÖĞREN)

A

Pros–> Strong metabolic effects (diyabet hastaları tercih ediyor), standardized techniques, <5% major complication rate, effective for GERD, can be used as a second stage after sleeve gastrectomy.
Cons–> Few proven revisional options for weight regain, malignant ulcers, internal hernias are possible, long term micronutrient deficiency might occur.
Target weight loss: 30- 35%

112
Q

In which patients should we consider roux-en-Y gastric bypass?

A

May produce greater weight loss than sleeve in the long term
BMI > 50
Chronic DM, insulin use
Large HH (>5cm), Esophagitis +/-Barrett’s, Significant reflux symptoms
Sleeve is technically easier to perform with less morbidity
LAGB is almost abandoned
BPD / DS or SADI – S
Conversion from sleeve for improved weight loss

113
Q

Duodenal switch ameliyatı nedir?

A

Duodenal Switch, pilor kasının korunması için midenin farklı şekilde küçültüldüğü ve ince bağırsağın mideden ve pilor kasından sonraki iki santimlik duodenuma bağlandığı bir başka çeşit Biliopankreatik Diversiyon (BPD) ameliyatıdır. Bu ikisine birlikte Biliopankreatik Diversiyon-Duodenal Switch (BPD/DS) adı verilir.

114
Q

Info abt duodenal switch?

A

Pros–> Very strong metabolic effects, durable weight loss, effective for very high BMI patients, can be used as a second stage after sleeve gastrectomy.
Cons–> Malabsorptive (3-5% protein calorie malnutrition), GERD, potential internal hernias, duodenal dissection risk, higher rate of micronutrient deficiencies.
Target weight loss: 35-45%

115
Q

What are the surgical diseases of pancreas?

A

Cancers, acute and chronic pancreatitis, cysts.

116
Q

Hangi hücreler pankreasta ne salgılar?

A

Endocrine: alfa–> glukagon, beta–> insülin, delta–> somatostatin
Exocrine. acinar h–> sindirim enzimleri

117
Q

Additional info abt delta cells and somatostatin?

A

delta hücreleri: mide bağırsak ve pankreas adacıklarında bulunabilen hücrelerdir. Pankreasta somatostatin üretirler (hipotalamusta bulunuyor mu? mide ve bağırsakta somatostatin salgılıyor mu?)

somatostatin: büyüme hormonu inhibe edici, pankreas adacıkları ve hipotalamustan salınır.
Aynı zamanda insülin ve glukagonu da inhibe eder.

118
Q

Info abt pancreatic cancers location?

A

70% baş kısmında, 15% gövdede %10 kuyrukta.
Tümörlerin %95’i exocrine bezlerde bulunur.

119
Q

Info about pancreatic cancers’ location and whether they cause obstructive jaundice or not?

A

Baş tümörleri o.j.’ye sebep olur ama kuyruk ve gövdede olmaz. Papillomalar en iyi prognozlu pankreas kanserleridir çünkü çok kısa sürede oj yapar ve erken teşhise olanak verirler.
(Bunları hoca sözlü söyledi ondan emin olmakta fayda var)

120
Q

Info abt pancreatic cancers most common precursor cells?

A

Epithelial cells that are lining the ducts: Majority of the cases. Has a glandular like appearance.
Acinar cells: %5 of the cases. They produce digestive enzymes.
Cystadenocarcinoma: %1*6 of the cases. Malignant cyst
(acinar mı en alttaki mi daha nadir anlamadım)

121
Q

What are the specific cells’ cancers called in pancreas?

A

Alpha cells: Glucagonoma
Beta cells: İnsulinoma
Delta cells: Somatostatinoma

122
Q

Risk factors for developing pancreatic cancer?

A

Non modifiable: Male, black, 65+
Modifiable: Smoking, obesity, high red meat consumption
Other diseases: Diabetes, chronic pancreatitis, liver cirrhosis

123
Q

Symptoms of pancreatic cancer?

A

Weight loss!!! Hastaların %90ında olur. (Anorexia ve malabsorption sebepli olur.)
Nausea, vomiting, fatigue.
Midepigastric pain: radiates to mid/ lower back, worse when lying flat
Pale stool and dark urine, if obstructive jaundice.

124
Q

Signs of pancreatic cancer?

A

Courvoiser sign: gallbladder is enlarged and palpable, NOT tender
Trousseau signs of malignancy: Blood clots felt as small lumps under the skin

125
Q

What are some disorders that pancreatic cancer can cause?

A

Obstructive jaundice and new onset of diabetes.

Obstructive jaundice: Occurs if common bile duct is obstructed. Loss of appetite, darker urine (çay rengi), pale stool.
New onset or worsened diabetes: Occurs if the endocrine function is affected. Genelde yaşlı hastalarda görürüz. (emin değilim) kuyruk ve gövde tümörleri daha çok sebep oluyor olabilir?

126
Q

What are the lab findings of pancreas cancer?

A

Serum amylase↑, serum lipase↑, Ca19-9↑, CEA↑
Due to obstructive jaundice: bilirubin↑, alp↑, transaminase↑

Not: The symptoms are generally non specific symptoms that might be elevated in people without cancer, especially smokers. Therefore, they cant be used for diagnosis! Medical imaging + biopsy should be done to confirm diagnosis.

127
Q

What are Ca19-9 and CEA?

A

Ca19-9–> Helps with immune surveillance. (daha fazla bilgi yaz)
CEA–> Glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion

128
Q

How do we stage pancreas cancer and what does the staging depends on? What does staging of the cancer determine for cure?

A

Staging depends on size + location
1) <2cm
2) > 2cm
3) Grown into neighboring tissue
4) Metastatic: spread through blood or lymph
Stage determines if the cancer is resectable!

129
Q

What are the imaging techniques that can be used to diagnose and follow pancreas cancer?

A

CT (en çok onu kullanıyoruz) for diagnosis and PET for follow up.

130
Q

Surgical treatments of pancreatic cancer?

A

R0 resection is gold standard.
Whipple procedure: Pancreaticoduodenectomy. Çok zor bir ameliyat. Baş tümörleri için işlevsiz (?). The procedure includes removing the head of the pancreas, the first part of the small intestine, the gallbladder and the bile duct.

131
Q

Chemo and radiotherapy of pancreatic cancer?

A

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy to shrink the tumor for surgery, adjuvant chemotherapy after surgery. Those who can’t have surgery can also receive chemotherapy.
Kemoterapi çok etkili değil ve pankreas retroperitonda olduğundan radyoterapi de değil.

132
Q

How is the prognosis of pancreatic cancer?

A

Often very poor. Might be the poorest among all cancers.
%10 survival rate for all stages, very low. Mostly already advanced at the time of diagnosis.

133
Q

Pathogenesis of pancreatitis?

A

Pankreastaki enzimler kendi kendini sindirmesin diye zymogen (inaktif) olarak depolanır. Pankreatitte ise zymogen enzimler aktifleşir ve pankreas kendi kendiğini sindirerek enflamasyona sebep olur.
Alkol kullanımı, safra taşları, genetik, idiopathic, autoimmune (sjörgen).
Acute: reversible, chronic: irreversible.
Pankreatik ductlar boğum boğum olur.

134
Q

Where does the pancreatitis patients feel the abdominal pain?

A

As pancreas is in retroperitoneum, we might not determine the place of the pain accurately. However, pain in epigastrium and worsening of the pain when lying down might indicate pancreatitis.

135
Q

Information about zymogen storage of pancreas?

A

Exocrine acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes. Pancreas
produces them as zymogens, which are stored in vesicles called zymogen granules together with protease inhibitors.
Zymogens are activated by protease enzymes.
Normalde zymogenler ince bağırsakta aktive olur.

136
Q

Pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis?

A

Early activation of trypsinogen! (a protease.). This might be due to injury to acinar cells and impaired secretion of proenzymes.
Gallstones are the most common cause of acute pancreatitis. Alcohol abuse follows. Hypertriglyceridemia 3rd. Genes 4, drugs 5 and 5 has excellent prognosis.
Basically, reversible autodigestion of pancreas. Sudden inflammation takes place.

137
Q

Info abt necrotizing pancreatitis?

A

50% of the patients with necrotizing pancreatitis develop organ failure. And this complication cannot be predicted from the degree of pancreatic necrosis or the presence or absence of infected necrosis

138
Q

Iatrogenic acute pancreatitis etiologies?

+ Genes that effect acute pancreatitis formation?

A

25% of patients undergoing sphincter of oddi manometric studies, %5 therapeutic ERCP, %3 diagnostic ERCP has acute pancreatitis occurrence.

+PRSS1, CFTR, CTRC –> esp in younger patients.

139
Q

Pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis?

A

Repeated bouts of acute pancreatitis can lead to chronic pancreatitis. Persistent inflammation takes place. Is caused by changes of structure: fibrosis, (acinar) atrophy and calcification.
IRreversible.
Healthy tissue is replaced by: misshaped ducts, fibrosis and calcium deposits.
Stellate cells lay down fibrotic tissue, which narrows the ducts, causing stenosis. (dilatation is also seen!)
Protein plugs can be seen too.
(dilation ve stenoz birbirlerine mi sebep oluyor o kısmı anlamadım)

140
Q

Etiologies of chronic pancreatitis?

A

Toxic metabolites like alcohol, autoimmune (Sjörgen), genetic, recurrent acute pancreatitis, obstruction (pancreas divisum)

141
Q

Pancreas divisum nedir?

A

pankreas kanallarının anatomisinde tek bir pankreas kanalının oluşmadığı, bunun yerine iki ayrı dorsal ve ventral kanal olarak kaldığı konjenital bir anomalidir. Pankreas divisumlu bireylerin çoğunda semptom veya komplikasyon görülmez. It is a relatively common congenital anomaly.

(pancreas divisum obstruciton hakkında daha fazla şey yaz)

142
Q

What is a long term consequence of chronic pancreatitis?

A

Diabetes mellitus!
As inflammation destroys alpha and beta cells. Some patients even develop pseudocysts.

143
Q

What are some consequences of acute and chronic pancreatitis?

A

Acute: Systemic organ failure (shock, ARDS, acute renal failure), disseminated intravascular coagulation, pancreatic pseudocyst, duodenal obstruction

Chronic: Pseudocyst, duct obstruction, malabsorption, steorrhea, secondary diabetes (diabetes that results as a consequence of another medication, endocrine disease or hereditary disease.)

144
Q

Imaging of pancreatitis?

A

CT gold standard.
X ray and CT may show calcifications.
Ducts can be imaged with ERCP (tedavi + teşhis) or alternatively MRCP (teşhis)

145
Q

Treatment of acute pancreatitis?

A

Sıvı dengesi, bir süre beslenmeme, enfeksiyon önlemek adına profilaksi, ağrıyı kesme.

146
Q

Treatment of chronic pancreatitis?

A

Control pain, control risk factors: ↓alcohol, meet and obesity.
For pancreatic insufficiency: Replace digestive enzymes + have nutritional supplements
For diabetes: Insulin replacement therapy.

147
Q

Pancreatic pseudocysts info?

A

A fluid collection contained within a well defined capsule of fibrous or granulation tissue or a combination of both.
Doesnt posses an ephitelial lining.
Persists > 4wk. May develop due to acute or chronic pancreatitis. BT gold for detecting. Girişimsel radyolojiye başvururuz. Csytogastrostomy çok tercih etmiyoruz ondan.

148
Q

Kanserde duct genişlemesi oluyor mu?

A

araştır.