Cattle 1 Flashcards
What are the 8 main drives of profit on beef farms
- Stocking density
- Cattle genetics
- Fertiliser management, reducing bought in feeds
- Pasture growth and utilisation
- Marketing of end product
- Efficient labour usage
- Disease prevention and control
- Time of calving
features of highly fertile beef herd - calving pattern, female calve in first cycle, calving rate, age of heifers, heifer dystocia
- Calving pattern 8 weeks in cows and 6 weeks in heifers
- 70% of females calve in first cycle
- calving rate > 95%
- use highly fertile high serving capacity bulls
- heifers calve down as 2 year old
- heifer dystocia rate < 5%
- high heifer retention rate enabling cows to be sold at 8 years old having reared their 6th calf
List the 7 habits for effective heifer and cow management
- Calving Pattern
- Heifer Critical Mating Weights
- Heifer Weaning
- Heifer Nutrition
- Parasite Control
- Reproductive Diseases
- Selection of Heifers for Joining
Calving pattern what do you want, how to achieve and important reproductive events
- Most beef farms do seasonal calving
- Management practices need to be implemented in order to get shorter calving periods
Reproductive events
1. Cow calves
2. Post-partum anoestrus - 30-60 days
3. Cow starts cycling
4. Cows joined - 50-70% conception rate
5. Cows joined again -> 50-70% conception rate
Calving pattern how long from start of calving to start of joining and how long to calve for and what if longer
How long from start of calving to the start of joining
- 12 months in the year, pregnant for 9 months so starting joining 3 months after start of calving
How long should we calve for?
- 6-8 weeks
- If longer, the calvers at the end of the calving are harder to get in calf quickly enough -> only 50% cycling instead of 91%
○ You will get more pregnant (better than empty cow) BUT
§ Average weight of progeny is lighter
§ Not worth as much at sale
§ Need more old cows because more heifers don’t meet critical mating weights
§ Hard to cut back the calving interval by simply having shorter joining periods
- A good strategy is to focus on the heifers
Heifer critical mating weight what is it and how old are heifers at joining
- Puberty is related to body weight as well as age
- CMW definition: 84% conceive in 6 weeks
- Will vary with breed and herd
- Most breeds start cycling at about 52% mature BW
- Typical benchmark is 60-65% of average mature BW for the herd
- Growth rate about 1kg per day
How old are heifers at joining - Aim to calve at 2 years so oldest will be 15-16 months old, later clavers 13-14months
- THEREFORE later calving heifers need to achieve CMW at an earlier age - WHY CALVING PATTERN IS SO IMPORTANT
Heifer weaning when to wean and how related to energy in the paddock and the mothers nutrition
When to wean
- Minimum Age = 100 days from when the last calf born
- Maximum Age = 6 months, depending on season and available feed
○ Why 6 months? At 6 months some bulls will be reproductively available
- If Cow condition drops to 2.5
Energy
- Certain amount of energy in the paddock
- Feed in paddock
○ 1. turn feed into calf OR 2. turn feed into milk THEN turn milk into calf
- At some point it is more efficient to turn the energy directly into the calf -> WANT TO WEAN AS SOON AS POSSIBLE
- Also FOR THE MOTHER
○ Dam eat feeds
§ Some feed used for maintenance
§ Some feed turn into milk
§ Excess feed stored as fat -> when wean move to this
○ Therefore in droughts “early weaning can be a good strategy”
Selection of heifers for joining how much retain of heifers, which age group better and 5 reasons why
- Herds often retain 40-50% of heifers
- This is equivalent to 20 -25% of herd size
- Retaining more heifers will lead to a younger herd- BETTER
1. Cow value declines after 6-7 years
2. Bodyweight peaks at 7-8 years
3. Weaning weights of calves declines in older cows
4. Older cows are more likely to die
○ Grass Tetany
○ Cancers
5. More flexibility to cull for genetic gain
Oestrus synchrony why important on beef farms and different with dairy cattle
- Increasing in popularity on beef farms
○ Useful to decrease calving length - Need less bulls (??)
- More inseminations in 6 weeks
- Programs similar to dairy cattle - Some differences
○ Beef cattle respond differently to GnRH and P4
pregnancy diagnosis when occur for a short or long joining period
- If using a short joining period:
○ PD heifers 6-8 weeks after joining finishes
§ If empty cull straight away
○ PD cows at or just before weaning
§ Calf at foot so wouldn’t cull before this point if empty - If using a longer joining period
○ 16 weeks is a good point for rectal pregnancy diagnosis –10c piece cotyledons - MOST IMPORTANT FOR PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS
○ Join 16 weeks, pregtest 8 weeks later
○ Three groups:
1. NPD = empty
2. <16weeks = late
□ Can sell these as increase costs of cow as in calf
3. > 16 weeks = early
Bull selection what based on but what is the issue with this and example
- EBVs are used to determine genetic value of the bull
- “breedplan” allows you to decide which EBVs are most important for your farm as there are a lot
Genetic diseases - High genetic merit bulls often have lurking recessive problems
- Single gene recessive diseases are not uncommon
- Eg. Angus:
○ Fawn Calf Syndrome
What are the 3 important management of bulls
- EBVs and genetics
- Bull Management
- Assessment of fertility
What is the 5 important things involved with bull management and how long sick bull performance affected
- Management of sick/lame bulls
- Management of the Bull Team
- Bull:Cow ratio
- Vaccinations
- Fertility Testing
Management of sick/lame bulls
- How long does it take to produce a sperm cells -> 70 days
Spermatogenesis overview what does it consist of and the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium, how long does it take
Consist of:
• Spermatocytogenesis ( = Phases one and two, or Proliferation and Meiosis)• Spermiogenesis (= Phase three, or Differentiation)
• Note cellular bridges allowing cells to develop as cohorts
Cycle of the Seminiferous Epithelium
- This is a useful analogy to help understand the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium
- Each 12 month cycle has two stages (semesters)
- It takes 4 cycles (years) to complete the process
○ Cell division
○ DNA packaging
○ Add a motor and energy cells
○ Switch it on
Toxic sperm how occur and type of defect formed
- After fertilization, the DNA must be carefully unpacked
○ If the packing is done poorly, it will be unpacked poorly and the fertilized egg will die - Eggs can only be fertilized once
○ “Uncompensible defects”
§ Minor insults can be worse than major ones -> major cannot get to egg but minor can get to egg BUT NOT FERTILISE
§ Dead sperm can be compensated for by other sperm - compensible defect
§ Toxic Sperm waste eggs - cannot be changed with increasing sperm
List some things that can cause sperm abnormalities, how long do they last and how do we aviod toxic sperm
What can cause sperm abnormalities - Transport, Diet - Temperature, Lameness - disease, stress, toxins How long do they last - 30-40 days later it may then become apparent How do we avoid Toxic Sperm ? - Know the history - Own the bull for 70 days - Don’t use a sick or injured bull for at least 70 days
Training of virgin bulls, bull:cow ratio and bull groups what is important
Training/management of virgin bulls
- School them - know what they want to do but not how to do it the best way
○ Virgin bulls watch other bulls
- Give them an extra 10 days
Bull:cow ratio - 1:50 animals
Bull groups
- Not a specific amount of bulls in the group
- Run bulls in groups for a couple of months before mating so they can sort out a pecking order
- Use bulls of similar age and size if possible
What are the 4 main things you should vaccinate bulls against
- 5 in 1 (Clostridialdiseases)
- Leptospirosis
- Vibriosis
- Pestivirus
What are the 6 important factors that prevent heifer dystocia
- Minimising calf size by choosing appropriate EBV values in bulls
- Maximising the dam size - right condition score
- Parasite control and vaccination
- Genetics - low birthweight EBV Bulls
- Calving pattern –older=bigger!
- Nutrition –pre-weaning nutrition is vital
Fertile bulls what percentage of normal heifers within 3-9 weeks and what makes a subfertile bulls
- Can impregnate (pregnant at 42 days) by natural service at least 60% and 90% of 50 normal, cycling, disease free animals within 3 and 9 weeks respectively
Sub‐Fertile Bulls - Can achieve pregnancies by natural service but not at the rate of fertile bulls
- Can produce viable semen but cannot achieve pregnancies by natural service
What are the 3 main reasons for examination of the bull
- Infertile bulls – make a diagnosis, insurance
- Pre‐mating – make a prognosis (VBBSE or Bull check as it is called now)
- Bull management is different in Northern vs Southern beef herds
Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE) what is it, what does it do and the 5 components it reports
- a protocol developed by the ACV to be a relatively quick and economic procedure for screening bulls prior to sale or use.
- not a guarantee
- Screen out “high risk” rather than screen out “Infertile”
- Uniform accepted standards
The 5 components are reported:
1. Scrotum
2. General Physical Examination
3. Crush Side Semen Evaluation
4. Serving Ability Testing
5. Semen Morphology Testing
Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation what gives a tick, qualified and cross
Tick
- All attributes for this component measured were consistent with the ACV standards.
- No risk factors for reduced fertility were identified during for this part of the VBBSE examination
Qualified
- Not all attributes for this component were consistent with ACV standards but these abnormalities may not necessarily preclude the bulls use.
- seek veterinary advice
- Retesting may be recommended.
Cross
- Some attributes for this component measured were not consistent with ACV standards.
- This bull has a significant risk of reduced fertility in the short term at least - may come right eventually
○ In these cases should be retested
- seek veterinary advice
What is important first step for Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE)
Identify the Bull - Decide what you will record - Always record ○ Age (even if only roughly) ○ Breed ○ Some primary ID - Certificates: ○ “Identified by” vs “Identified to me as” - Take Tail Hair if you might end up in court!
Scrotal circumference with Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE) why important and normal testes
- Reflects daily sperm output
- Can indicate puberty (>27.5 cm)
- Highly heritable & repeatable
- Related to age at puberty in heifer calves
“Normal Testes” - Significant variation in shape can be normal
- Symmetry – Left should equal Right (max 20% variation)
- Firmness and Resilience = tone
- Scored 1 – 5
- No “abnormalities”
List the 11 main abnormalities of the testes
1) unilateral hypoplasia/degeneration - one testis more than 20% smaller
2) bilateral hypoplasia/degeneration - small scortal circumference
3) epididymitis - Associated with seminal vesiculitis, tumours, abscesses, spermatocoeles, spermatic granulomas
4) small testicles
5) cryptorchid
6) biphallus - two penises
7) sperm granuloma - block movement of sperm
8) orchitis
9) haematoma
10) scortal (inguinal) hernia
11) varicocoele - pampiniform plexus burst
Small testicles who occurs and which process could be involved
○ Bilateral testicular hypoplasia/degeneration
○ Be careful of terminology –
§ “hypoplasia” means it has always been there and stud breeders don’t like that if you diagnose it on client farms!
□ Implies genetic issue
§ Degeneration means it was once normal and has shrunk
□ Infectious cause
§ Use both if not sure!
examining the penis and prepuce
- Palpate the penis cranial to the scrotum
- Observe during rectal palpation
- Observe at electroejaculation
- ACP or pudendal nerve blocks can assist
What are the 9 main abnormalities of the penis/prepuce
1) urolithiasis
2) preputial prolapse
3) prepuce stenosis (phimosis)
4) papillomas of the penis
5) penile haematoma
6) persistent frenulum - genetics - DO NOT BREED
7) balanitis, prosthitis and balanoposthitis
8) IBR = bovine herpes virus - vaccinate
9) hair strangulation of penis
Preputial prolapse predipsoing factors, cause and fertility
○ Mostly Bos indicus breeds
○ anatomical faults predisposing to prolapse:
§ long pendulous sheath,
§ large preputial orifice
§ absence or poor development of the retractor prepuce muscles.
○ These are inherited faults and selection against them has resulted in a reduced incidence of prepuce injuries.
○ Prepuce injuries are one of the most important causes of infertility in Bos indicus and Bos indicus derived bulls in northern Australian herds.
○ Bulls with extreme faults such as a long wide pendulous sheath should not be certified as low risk for breeding as they are prone to prepuce injury during mating.
Prepuce stenosis (phimosis) what group has high prevalence, common sequale to what and how reported on fertility exam
- high prevalence in Bos indicus and polled Bos taurus bulls as well as 2-4 year old
- It commonly follows injury and infection of the internal lamina of the prepuce at mating
- should be reported as a X – High Risk on the Physical examination screen
Papillomas of the penis common in what age, where most commonly located, types and treatment with prognosis and fertility
○ common in bulls between 1 and 2 years of age
○ lesions often confined to the free part of the penis
○ may be pedunculated – often can snip off – but treated bulls should be monitored and closely examined prior to the next mating season or prior to sale as warts can re‐occur within 1‐2 months of treatment
○ may be diffuse ‐ usually encircles the glans penis resulting in analgesia of the penis and failure to achieve intromission detected by manual examination of the penis or during a serving assessment.
○ prognosis is good and many cases will recover spontaneously
○ As warts are a viral disease that can be spread sexually, bulls should be considered unsuitable for mating until they are healed.
Define balanitis, posthitis and balanoposthitis and how report on fertility exam
○ Balanitis ‐ inflammation of the penis
○ Posthitis ‐ inflammation of the prepuce
○ Balanoposthitis ‐ inflammation of both
○ A range of causes including IBR
○ Risk of adhesions is high
○ Report as X – High Risk (may still use on endemic farms)
Physical examination for Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE) what are the 8 things involved and what looking for
- Identify the bull
- Condition score
- Check the eyes - squamous cell carcinomas, vision impairment
- Sheath structure
- Examine the hooves - scissor claw, curled tow, worn claw, sand cracks
- Examine leg structure and conformation - posty leg, sickly hock, degenerative joint disease
- Examine gait
- Reproductive Organs
Crush side semen evaluation for Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE) what are the 3 ways semen is collected and what tested for
- Semen is collected and examined at the Crush Side
1. Rectal Massage -> massage seminiferous tubules
2. Electro‐ejaculation -> place probe into rectum and increase charge with contractions until bull ejaculates
3. (Artificial Vagina) - not done in the field - Need DRY equipment
- Need WARM equipment
- Collect a sample for morphology
Crush side semen evaluation for Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE) what are the standards for the semen to pass
- Density of 1 or more
○ 200 sperm per 100x field under a cover slip - Absence of blood or urine staining
- Absence of flocculant material and large numbers of pus cells
- Percent progressively motile -> actively moving forward
○ Tick – 60% +
○ Pass – 30% ‐ 59%
○ Fail ‐ < 30%
Serving ability testing for Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE) how perform and where more common
- Can be done individually or in groups
- Can use restrained or unrestrained females
- Females may or may not be in oestrus
- If females not in oestrus, they need to be restrained in crates
○ Welfare issues ?
○ Disease spread ? - More common up north … as south can see bulls within the paddock
Define serving capacity and serving ability
Serving Capacity
- counting the number of successful services in a 20 minute test
- Used for genetic evaluation
Serving ability
- can the bull serve a cow. Only one instance needs to be observed
- Used to diagnose ability and disease (eg corkscrew penis)
What are the 3 components of the serving ability test for VBBSE and what hampers the bull being able to do these
1. Erection ○ Hampered by: haematomas, persistent frenulum, preputial trauma 2. Intromission ○ Hampered by ○ Corkscrew Penis § Premature Spiral Deviation § 2.5 – 5 years old § Progressive ○ Dorsal analgesia of the Penis - common § Nerve damage from injury § Cannot “seek” -> doesn't know where penis is so cannot penetrate ○ Painful Penises 3. Ejaculation ○ Pain causes unwillingness to ejaculate § Back Pain § Penis Pain ○ Problems with neural coordination § Sensory nerves of penis § Lumbar spondylosis
Sperm morphology testing for Veterinary bull breeding soundness evaluation (VBBSE) how occurs, what identify and what need for AI and natural mating
- 8 drops of semen into a vial of buffered formol saline and send to lab
- Easy
- Identifies some permanent conditions
- Identifies some transient conditions
- Compensable vs non‐compensable defects
- Should have 70% normal sperm for AI
- 50%‐70% normal sperm ok for paddock mating
- Provided that
○ Not more than 20% uncompensable
○ Nor more than 30% of other individual abnormalities