Case 2: Wicked problems

Question 1

What are policy problems?

Answer 1

Unrealised needs, values or opportunities for improvement.

Question 2

What does an issue that is defined or redefined influence?

Answer 2

1. type of politicking which will result around it
2. chances of reaching agenda of particular political institution
3. chances of a policy outcome favourable to advocates of issue

Question 3

What are common sources of policy problems?

Answer 3

• Routine population health surveillance
• Ex post policy evaluation (ineffective policy)
• continuous stakeholder involvement & dialogue

Question 4

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Why do we need public health surveillance for policy?

Answer 4

Surveillance done specifically to support health policies, design & evaluation, etc.

see q1

Question 5

What is evidence-informed policymaking?

Answer 5

approach intended to ensure that decision making is well-informed by the best available research evidence

Question 6

What are the characteristics of evidence-informed policymaking?

Answer 6

• its access & evaluation of evidence as an input into the policymaking process is both systematic & transparent
• Must have evidence to support!

Question 7

Why is evidence-informed policy desirable?

Answer 7

Evidence-informed approaches allow policymakers to:

• Ask critical questions about evidence (Effect- ex ante)
• Use good information on which to base decisions (legitimacy)
• Evaluations of initiatives are appropriate & outcomes measured are realistic & agreed. (Effect - ex post)
• Acknowledge that policies can be informed by imperfect information (Risk mitigation)

Question 8

What is policy framing?

Question 9

What is problem framing?

Answer 9

Refers to the way a situation or problem is defined & presented

Question 10

What is framing?

Answer 10

process by which issues, decisions, or events acquire different meanings from different perspectives

Question 11

What is the purpose of frames?

Answer 11

• different frames point to different actions and strategies
• frames issues to be dealt with & reveals further problems to be tackled

Question 12

What phases is framing relevant in?

Answer 12

• Understanding
• plannning & decision making
• managing the problem

Question 13

Explain why framing is relevant for understanding?

idk if i worded it correctly

Answer 13

• problem detection & initial framing (framing whether there’s a problem to be addressed)
• information gathering & use (framing what available information means)
• problem definition (reaching agreement on the problem framing)

Question 14

Explain why framing is relevant for planning & decision making?

Answer 14

• developing options (framing range/nature of options to be considered)
• option assessment (framing of kind of expertise that’s required)
• selection of options (framing uncertainty about unintended consequences)

Question 15

Explain why framing is relevant for managing the problem?

Answer 15

• implementation (how do affected actors frame the adaptation options)
• monitoring (framing the monitoring requirements)
• evaluation (framing the goals of evaluation)

Question 16

Why does problem framing matter?

Answer 16

• Different frames (stories) implicitly lead ot different courses of action

E.g.
* Climate change as natural → no problem
* Climate change as manmade → green growth/degrowth/etc

Question 17

What are characteristics of policy problems?

Answer 17

• Solubility
• complexity
• Question of scale

Question 18

Explain solubility as a characteristic of policy problems

Answer 18

• looking at policy problems is whether they can be ‘‘solved’’ or not.
• Is it worth being put on the agenda

Question 19

Explain complexity as a characteristic of policy problems

Answer 19

2 types:
* political complexity
* programmatic complexity

Question 20

Explain political complexity as a characteristic of policy problems

Answer 20

Number of political interests & actors involved in problem & degree of difficulty in negotiating agreements among parties involved. (e.g. climate change: taxes on oil, taxes, etc)

Question 21

Explain programmatic complexity as a characteristic of policy problems

Answer 21

Extent to which average citizen on street is capable of understanding issues & capable of intervening effectively in decision-making process (technical complexity, how hard is it to understand).

Question 22

Explain question of scale as a characteristic of policy problems

Answer 22

what is the magnitude of the problem, and the range of effects that it produces. (is it the smallest the problem can be?)

Question 23

How can we explain relationships between problems & instrument choice?

Answer 23

1. Divisibility
2. Monetization
3. Scope of activity
4. Interdependencies

Question 24

What is divisibility?

Answer 24

• Nature of the goods required to “solve” the problem.

Question 25

What is monetization?

Answer 25

Using money terms to quantify effects of policy or whether money can be used to solve, or improve problems identified.

Question 28

What is the relationship betwen policy problems & instruments selection?

Answer 28

* related to the capacity of governments to carry out differing activities. * Especially for wicked problems that require different interventions so need more capacity.

Question 29

What are interdependencies?

Question 30

How can we define policy problems in a way that csan be affective for policy design?

Answer 30

1st stage: defining what problem is about 2nd stage: develop set of dimensions that can be used to characterise problems. “Framing the problem for solution”

Question 31

What does the definition of an issue influence?

Answer 31

* the type of politicking which will ensue around it * its chances of reaching the agenda of particular political institution * chances of a policy outcome favorable to advocates of the issue’

Question 32

What is the role of scientific evidence in problem identification & structuring?

Answer 32

* clarifies the effectiveness of the intervention, identifies the policy outcomes * crucial for collective understanding of the complex problem * **rational optimist:** if you study the relationship you will understand the connection between the problem and the solution, if we have enough experience we will understand the problem * evidence-informed policies

Question 33

What are limitations of evidence for policy?

Answer 33

* evidence can be overlooked * outcomes are shaped by different stakeholders, media, information confidentiality * can pick-an choose which evidence to use→ evidence is politicized * not all evidence is equal, look at the quality of evidence (transferable to the whole population) * differences evidence between on countries, and within countries

Question 34

What are wicked problems?

Answer 34

problems that can't have one solution

Question 35

What are the 10 primary characteristics of wicked problems that Rittel & Webber proposed?

Answer 35

1. no definitive formulation of a wicked problem 2. Have no "stopping rule" 3. Solutions not true/false but good/bad 4. No immediate & ultimate test of solution 5. Every (attempted) solution = **one-shot operation** 6. Don't have an enumerable set of potential solutions 7. Every problem = unique 8. Every problem can be considered a symptom of another problem 9. Existence of discrepancy representing wicked problem can be explained in various ways. 10. Planner has "no right to be wrong" (stakes are too high to have space to fail)

Question 36

What is the Heifetz typology of problems & solutions?

Answer 36

* ** Type 1 situations**: both definition of problem & likely solution are clear to decision maker (e.g. manager or policy expert). * **Type 2 situations**: definition of problem is clear, but solution isn't & therefore learning & discussion are required by both the governmental managers & stakeholders. Response = more research * **Type 3 situations**: both problem definition & solution are unclear & more extensive learning & discussion are required

Question 37

What variables does complexity in systems arise from?

Answer 37

**number of elements & interaction between elements** * If either increases, so does the complexity of the system. * More complex and diverse the situation = more wicked the problem.

Question 38

What are wicked problems associated with?

Answer 38

* **social pluralism** (multiple interests & values of stakeholders) * **institutional complexity** (context of interorganizational cooperation & multilevel governance) * **scientific uncertainty** (fragmentation & gaps in reliable knowledge)

Question 39

What are the consequences for policy problems?

Answer 39

* Problems interact, amplify each other (feedback) & = emergence of complex crises. * Increased complxity = more difficult to make right health policy decisions.

Question 40

What are general characteristics of complex systems?

Answer 40

* 1st reason why it’s weird & complex is because our brains are not good at dealing with **feedback loops ** * 2nd reason why it’s weird & complex is because our brains are not good at dealing with **emergence** | see image q3

Question 41

What are 2 basic kinds of wrong decisions?

Answer 41

* Inaction, too late decision-making * Wrong action & unintended consequences

Question 42

Explain inaction, too late decision making as a wrong way of decision making?

Answer 42

Analysis paralysis (or paralysis by analysis): * individual/group process where overanalyzing/overthinking a situation can = decision-making to become "paralyzed", meaning that no solution is decided upon within a natural time frame.

Question 43

Explain wrong action & unintended consequences as a wrong way of decision making?

Answer 43

think we understand the problem & whats driving it but this causes us to take wrong action & unintended consequences.

Question 44

How do unintended consequences arise?

Answer 44

* Errors in reading situation, selecting policy, or implementing decision * Fixation on specific intended outcomes, ignoring others * Very common in healthpolicy!

Question 45

What are challenges of wicked problems?

Answer 45

* **acknowledging:** no one size fits all solution * administrative & scientific development & evolution are more in-depth & more specialized → more effective, but wicked problems require more **holistic, multidisciplinary approach**, more comprehensive research & administration

Question 46

What are solutions to wicked problems?

Answer 46

* embracing system thinking - knowledge is context dependent * collaboration * need for leadership & different types of leaders * holistic approach: take whole context into account

Question 47

What is collaboration & coordination?

Answer 47

entails a degree of: - shared understanding - agreed purposes - mutual trust - an element of interdependence

Question 48

How does collaboration & coordination help in addressing wicked problems?

Answer 48

* functioning cooperative networks increases the likelihood that the nature of the problem and its underlying causes can be better understood * collaboration increases the likelihood that provisional solutions to the problem can be found and agreed upon, not only because a wider network offers more insights but also because greater cooperation improves the prospect that diverse parties (who may have differing interests concerning the issue) may reach an understanding about what to do * facilitates the implementation of solutions, not only because the parties are more likely to have agreed on the next steps but also because it potentially enables shared contributions, coordinated actions, and mutual adjustments among them as problems arise in putting the agreed solution into practice, enhanced by bestowing autonomy and hence flexibility on organizational representatives