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b. phys exam 2 (w13) > carbs,fats,proteins: 2/27/13 > Flashcards

carbs,fats,proteins: 2/27/13 Flashcards

1
Q
  1. carbohydrates are broken down from ____ to ____?

2. where does this start?

A
  1. polymers to monomers

2. starts in salivary gland

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2
Q

what are other monomer grops (3)

A

maltose, ethanol, lactic acid

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3
Q

what are the 3 salivary gland groups and where are they located?

A

parotid gland- in front of the ears (parotic is latin for around the ear)
sublingual gland- below jaw in front of larynx
sub mandibular gland- below tongue

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4
Q

Parotid gland:

  1. what is in the saliva?
  2. what does this enzyme break down?
  3. how much digestion is done here?
  4. where is this enzyme deactivated
A
  1. majority of amylase comes from parotid
  2. amylase breaks starches down to oligosaccharides and maltose
  3. 20-30% of carb digestion is done here
  4. enzyme is a protein and is therefore deactivated in the stomach which has a pH of 2. (once in the stomach, there is no digestion of carbs).
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5
Q
  1. what happens to the carbs once in the duodenum?

2. where is amylase produced in the pancreas?

A
  1. CCK is released and stimulates the pancreas to put out pancreatic amylase which breaks down 60-80% of the carbohydrates.
  2. produced in acinar glands and secreated via the pancreatic duct
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6
Q

where are oligosacharides broken down to glucose and maltose?

A

the brush border of the the duodenum where surgars aren broken by enzymes and absorbed into the apical membrane.

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7
Q

what does maltose break down into?

A

maltose breaks into glucose and glucose

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8
Q

what does sucrose break into

A

sucrose breaks into glucose and fructose

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9
Q

what does lactose break into?

A

lactose breaks into glucose and galactose

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10
Q
  1. what is dextrose?

2. what breaks dextrose down?

A
  1. a 3, 4 or 5 glucose complex sugar.

2. broken by enzyme called alpha dextrase into smaller, but unequal glucose chains

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11
Q

lactose intolerence:

  1. why doesit occur?
  2. where does the diarrhea and gas come from?
A
  1. most mammals shut down their lactase enzyme production when they are done being babies, but not humans (usually). if the enzyme does shut down….
  2. if your body cannot break down maltose, tha bacteria will; and the maltose becomes osmotically active pulling fluid into it. also once the bacteria digest the maltose, they produce alot of gas.
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12
Q

what nutrients are digested in the stomach

A

fats and proteins

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13
Q
  1. what nutrients can be pulled into the apical membrane?

2. what about fructose?

A
  1. glucose and galactose via sodium co-transporter

2. gets in somehow (nobody knows how)

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14
Q

protein digestion:

  1. where does it start?
  2. what cells release the pre-enzyme that digests protein? what is the pre-enzyme called?
  3. how is it activated? What cells secrete the “activating” substance?
  4. how does this enzyme work?
A
  1. in the stomach
  2. chief cells release pepsinogen
  3. parietal cells release HCL which cleaves the -ogen off pepsinogen turning it into activated pepsin
  4. pepsin breaks down collagen which contains amino acid Glycine.
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15
Q

how does glycine make up collagen?

A

glycine has an R group that is simply a hydrogen, this small ‘R’ group allows the 3 collagen strands (made up of rows of glycine) to bind close together (this increases tensile strength).

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16
Q
  1. what causes acinar cells to release their enzyme?
  2. what is the enzyme?
  3. what does it do?
A
  1. cck causes acinar cells to release enzyme…
  2. pancreatic proteases
  3. proteases digest proteins
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17
Q
  1. what keeps proteases from digesting the pancreas?
  2. what are the names of these proteases before they are activated?
  3. what activates these (3) proteases?
  4. what is the activated form of these?
A
  1. tyrosin inhibitor
  2. tripsinogen, chemotrypsinogen, procarboxypepcidase
  3. enterokinase
  4. tripsin, chemotripsin, carboxypepcidase
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18
Q

what do trypsin, chemotrypsin and carboxypepsidase do (respectively)?

A

a. chemotrypsin and trypsin break long amino acid chains into smaller ones
b. carboxypepsidase attacks the carboxy group of the amino acid

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19
Q

what are these smaller chains called?

A

dipeptides and polypeptides

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20
Q
  1. how are these “peptides” broken down & where?

2. what is the name of the enzymes that break them down (2)?

A
  1. enzymes at the brush border

2. aminopolypeptidase and dipeptidase

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21
Q

what happens osmotically when polymers are broken down into monomers?

A

each monomer will have its own osmotic pull

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22
Q

what happens to fructose and galactose inside the cell?

A

they are broken down into glucose

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23
Q

what happens to the amino acids (think back to renal)

A

they are pulled in by sodium cotransporters (like glucose) at the apical membrane

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24
Q
  1. what happens to amino acids in the situation when there is a lack of glucose?
  2. what is the relationship between acetyl groups and glucose?
A
  1. AAs are converted to ketone bodies which can be broken down to acetyl groups by the liver.
  2. acetyll groups are 2 carbon molecules that can be used in the kreb’s cycle (remember 1 glucose makes 2 acetyl groups).
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25
Q
  1. if sodium is pulling in all this glucose and AAs, what happens to the sodium concentration inside the cell?
  2. what happens next (with “the whore” and water)?
A
  1. sodium is pumped right back out by Na/K channels on the baslateral membrane.
  2. chloride ion follows and water as well thru the tight leaky junctions
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26
Q
  1. what happens with sodium when there is excess bicarb outside the anterolateral membrane?
  2. what does this cause? How much per day?
A
  1. sodium is pulled in and exchanged for H+, which mixes with the bicarb to form CO2 + H20
  2. this is methane gas (farts), which we make 750 ml/day of.
27
Q
  1. what are the crypts in the colon surface called?
  2. what do they do?
  3. what system (also present in the resp tree) governs this process?
A
  1. krypts of liberkind
  2. pull chloride ion and water into the cell at the surface and secrete it into the pits
  3. this system if controlled by the CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulators).
28
Q

what else happens to CL- in the lumen of the intestines (think of chloride exchange)?

A

Cl- is exchanged for HCO3- which buffers the bowel from bacterial H+ and forms H2O and CO2

29
Q
  1. what does the bowel do to move food through?

2. what happens to this “substance” after that?

A
  1. bowel uses alot of water to move food through

2. once it is moved through, it is reabsorbed back into the blood

30
Q
  1. what is the second portal capillary system in the body (the first being the glumerulous and the afferent/efferent vessels)?
  2. what does it consist of?
A
  1. hepatic portal system

2. consists of mesenteric arteries connected by hepatic capillary bed via the hepatic portal vein

31
Q
  1. what connects the liver to the aorta?

2. to the vena cava?

A
  1. hepatic artery (coming into the liver)

2. hepatic vein (going out of the liver)

32
Q

how is emulsification of fat accomplished?

A

by bile and pancreatic enzymes

33
Q
  1. what enzyme breaks fat into small globules?

2. what are these globules called?

A
  1. lecithin

2. micelles

34
Q

what enzymes does the pancreas release to emulsify fats and carbs?

A

lipase, phospholipase and cholesterolase

35
Q
  1. what organ picks up the micele (as it does what)?

2. where does it send it?

A
  1. smooth endoplasmic reticulum (as it passes thru the columnar cells of the intestines)
  2. transported to lymph system via lacteals
36
Q
  1. what happens to the micele in the lymph system?

2. what is an apoprotein?

A

micele turns into a (lymphatic) CHYLOMICRON and an APO-PROTEIN is added to it, it now becomes a LIPOPROTEIN (HDL/LDL)
2. apoprotein is like an “address” for the lipo-protein that tells the body where it came from.

37
Q

what happens to the lipoprotein next (after having the apoprotein added to it)?

A

it is broken down into a “very low density lipoprotein” (VDRL) which is a triglyceride.

38
Q

what happens to the VLDL

A

it is recognized by the endothelial cells and dumped into the aorta

39
Q

where do LDLs come from (what makes them and what are they made from)?

A

liver makes them out of broken down nerve tissue

40
Q
  1. what is an apoprotein found on LDLs

2. what persons have problems with their B100s

A
  1. B-100

2. persons with atherosclerosis have mutations in their B-100

41
Q

what cells pick up the mutated B100

A
  1. b-100 receptor cells

2. macrophages

42
Q

tears in the vessels caused by LDL plaque attracts macrophages; what happens when they try to take the plaque?

A

they become “foam cells” and can no longer help with healing, this furthers atherosclerosis

43
Q

HDLs:

  1. where do they come from?
  2. what are they exactly?
  3. what do they do?
A
  1. come from liver
  2. are “empty envelopes”
  3. carry excess cholesterol back to the liver for processing
44
Q
  1. when starving, what does the liver do for the brain?

2. what does the liver do next?

A
  1. liver gives the brain its stored glycogen (as glucose)

2. takes fats and converts them to ketones to be broken down for fuel (not as effectient though).

45
Q

how is the fat broken down (4 steps)

  1. fat is split into __ parts?
  2. 1/2 half of the product undergoes what (2 things)?
  3. the other half is broken down how?
  4. this product goes where?
A
  1. fat is broken down to its two parts: a glycerol and a 3 carbon fatty acid chain
  2. the glycrol is phosphorylated and undergoes glycolysis
  3. the fatty acids are Beta oxidized (beta means 2nd carbon is broken off) into multiple 2 carbon acetyl groups.
  4. acetyl groups go to kreb’s cycle
46
Q

what 3 ways can acetyl groups be processed?

A
  1. broken down into metabolic water in kreb’s
  2. broken down into NADH by peroxisomes
  3. 2 aetyl groups can be added to gether to form acetyl acetic acid (ketone body)
47
Q

what happens to diabetics to put them into keto-acidosis?

A

they cannot pick up the glucose without insulin so they have to make acetylacetic acid (ketones)

48
Q
  1. what converts ketones to glucose ?
  2. what is the process called?
  3. what else can be made into glucose via this process?
A
  1. the liver
  2. gluconeogenesis (to make glucose from non carbohydrates).
  3. amino acids
49
Q

what else can the liver convert fatty acids to?

A

HDL, LDL, VLDL

50
Q

protein:

  1. what proteins does the liver make?
  2. what proteins doesnt it make?
A
  1. the liver makes:
    • albumin
    • complement
    • clotting and anti clotting factors
    • angioteninogen
  2. liver doesnt make antibodies (immune cells do)
51
Q
  1. what can the liver do with albumin?

2. what can it do with amino acids?

A
  1. break it down into glucose

2. change one amino acid into another one that you need

52
Q

digesting amino acids:

what are they broken into and where do the pieces go?

A

amino acids are broken into 2 carbon groups (that can be converted to acetyls and enter kreb’s or be converted into glucose or ketones) and ammonia which can be excreted as urea.

53
Q

what is the carbohydrate shuffle done by the liver (a sort of vascillation back and forth)?

A

carbs are converted via gluconeogenesis to glucose
glucose is converted to glycogen via glycogen synthesis
glycogen is broken down into glucose via glycogenolysis

54
Q

where are galactose and fructose converted to glucose

A

in liver or by intestines

55
Q

vitamins:

  1. vitamin A
  2. vitamin B12
  3. vitamin D
  4. Iron
A
  1. vitamin A: necessary for retina (converted to retinol)
  2. vitamin B12: necessary for blood cells (without it you have pernicious anemia)
  3. vitamin D: used by calcium for bones, skin, liver and kidney (issues with liver or kidney-you get ricketts)
  4. iron: transported as ferritin; liver stores it as LACTOFERRIN in cases of bacterial infection (so they cant utilize it).
56
Q
  1. liver has how many lobes?
  2. what are these lobes divided into?
  3. how are the lobules situated (what do they look like separately and all together)
  4. what is the grouping at each corner called? what is it a collection of?
  5. what do they share?
  6. whats in the middle of each lobule and what does it do?
A
  1. four
  2. many lobules
  3. look like oil cans individually, together look like a honeycomb
  4. a “triad”, made up of hepatic artery, vein and bile duct
  5. they share the triads with the adjacent lobules so that they are all interconnected
  6. central vein; the hepatic artery and vein drain into the central vein which drains into the hepatic vein
57
Q

hepatocytes:
1. how are they situated?
2. whats in the center?

A
  1. they are surrounded on 4 sides by endothelial cells called ITO CELLS, between the cell and the ito cells is the SPACE OF DISSE which allows hydrophobic unconjugated bile and hydrophilic bilirubin in. between the main cell and the ito cells are kupher cells and
  2. in the middle of the cell is a bile canaliculi (a ‘small canal’)
58
Q

liver detox:

  1. what does liver have to keep itself clean?
  2. ETOH: what breaks it down?
  3. what does it turn to?
  4. why do alcoholics get fatty liver?
A
  1. hundreds of enzymes to neurtalize chemicals
  2. ethanol dehydrogenase
  3. turns ETOH to acetylaldehyde which turns to Acetyl group or NADH then to 3ATP by mitochondria
  4. if you have too much NADH, the liver thinks its burning too much glucose and starts storing acetyls as fat (fatty liver)
59
Q

liver detox:

what happens if you drink ethylene glycol (antifreeze)

A

alcohol dehydrogenase turns it to oxilic acid which crystalizes in your kidneys and kills you

60
Q

liver detox:

what happens if you drink Methanol (gasoline)?

A

alcohol dehydrogenase converts it to formaldehyde (100 ml will kill you).

61
Q

liver detox:

what breaks down toxins, medicines etc.?

A

cytochrome (cp450 is just one of the many) found in the smooth ER and is a strong oxidizer.
2. cytochrome is a metal and it passes off an electron to oxidize a material, then it adds a glucoronic acid to it to conjugate it and then dumps it into the bile

62
Q

liver detox:

acetylators, what is it?

A

part of the liver that adds an acetyl group to a medication or chemical and secretes it into the bile.

63
Q

what are these:

  1. hepatic portal vein
  2. hepatic artery
  3. hepatic cords
  4. bile ducts
A

1.

64
Q

what are these:

  1. triad
  2. hepatocyte
  3. kupher cells
  4. bilirubin
A
  1. collection of a hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein and a bile duct for each lobule
  2. hepatocyte

b. phys exam 2 (w13) (6 decks)

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