Carbohydrates (wip) Flashcards
(108 cards)
1
Q
Organisms rely on the — of complex organic compounds to obtain energy
A
oxidation
2
Q
Three general types of organic compounds:
A
carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids
3
Q
are hydrates of aldehyde or ketone derivatives based on the location of the carbon-oxygen functional group.
A
Carbohydrates
4
Q
It is the major food source and energy supply for the body or stored primarily in the liver and muscle as glycogen.
A
Carbohydrates
5
Q
Carbohydrate storage form and where
A
glycogen in the liver and muscles
6
Q
simple sugars that contain four to eight carbons and only one aldehyde or ketone group
A
Monosaccharides
7
Q
The most common hexose monosaccharides include
A
glucose, fructose, and galactose
8
Q
Formed when two monosaccharide units are joined by a glycosidic linkage
A
Disaccharides
9
Q
The most common disaccharides are
A
maltose, lactose, sucrose
10
Q
The chaining of 3 to 10 sugar units
A
Oligosaccharides
11
Q
Formed by the linkage of many monosaccharide units
A
Polysaccharides
12
Q
The most common polysaccharides are
A
starch and glycogen
13
Q
what is plant-based glucose molecules and animal-based glucose molecules
A
starch and glycogen
14
Q
these carbohydrates can reduce other compounds while they themselves are oxidized.
A
reducing substances
15
Q
To be a reducing substance, the carbohydrate must contain an
A
active (available) ketone or an aldehyde group
16
Q
Examples of common-reducing sugars include:
A
glucose, maltose, fructose, lactose, and galactose.
17
Q
The most common nonreducing sugar is
A
sucrose
18
Q
table sugar
A
sucrose
19
Q
Glucose is metabolized inside the cytoplasm into
A
2 pyruvate molecules and 2 ATP molecules
20
Q
Process where glucose is metabolized
A
Glycolysis
21
Q
Glycolysis does not require oxygen and readily occurs in the absence of oxygen. This makes it an — process.
A
anaerobic
22
Q
pyruvate molecules can be transformed into either lactate or ethanol by a process called
A
fermentation
23
Q
The utilization of oxygen to transform the glycolysis by-product into high energy molecules is called
A
aerobic cellular respiration
24
Q
When the cells of the body have high levels of ATP, pyruvate and lactate molecules can be recycled to reform the glucose via a process called
A
gluconeogenesis
25
begins the cleavage of a-1, 4-glycosidic linkages in the mouth. This breaks it down into smaller polysaccharide and oligosaccharides.
Salivary α-Amylase
26
These polysaccharides are inherently too large for blood transport and cell uptake. Therefore, our digestive system utilizes ---- to break them down into smaller components.
proteases
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the pancreas release a more potent a-amylase into the small intestine that breaks it down into disaccharides (maltose) and trisaccharide (maltotriose).
Pancreatic α-Amylase
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Pancreatic α-Amylase breaks carbohydrates down into disaccharides (---) and trisaccharide (---).
maltose and maltotriose
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this enzyme breaks down maltose into its glucose constituents
Maltase (brush border)
30
this digests maltotriose and other glucose-based oligosugars
α-Glucosidase (brush border)
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breaks down limit dextrin units that have a-1, 6-linkages
α -Dextrinase
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metabolism of glucose molecule to pyruvate or lactate for production of energy
Glycolysis
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formation of glucose-6-phosphate from noncarbohydrate sources
Gluconeogenesis
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breakdown from glycogen to glucose for use as energy
Glycogenolysis
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conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage
Glycogenesis
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conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids
Lipogenesis
37
decomposition of fat
Lipolysis
38
Preparatory phase: Stage of Phosphorylation
Step 1: glucose → G6P (glucose-5-phosphate)
Step 2: G6P → F6P (fructose-6-phosphate)
Step 3: F6P → F1, 6 BP (fructose 1-6 biphosphate)
39
glucose → G6P (glucose-5-phosphate) is acted on by what enzyme
glucokinase or hexokinase
40
first irreversible step of glycolysis
glucose → G6P (glucose-5-phosphate)
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G6P → F6P (fructose-6-phosphate) is acted on by what enzyme
phosphohexose isomerase
42
F6P → F1, 6 BP (fructose 1-6 biphosphate) is acted on by what enzyme
phosphofructokinase I
43
bottleneck of the pathway, 2nd irreversible step of glycolysis
F6P → F1, 6 BP (fructose 1-6 biphosphate)
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Step 3 of glycolysis cofactor catalyst to make reaction faster
magnesium
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Prep phase: Stage of Splitting
Step 4: F1,6BP → DHAP + G3P (dihydroxyacetone phosphate; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)
46
stage where a 6 carbon compound splits into two 3 carbon compounds
stage of splitting: F1,6BP → DHAP + G3P (dihydroxyacetone phosphate; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)
47
F1,6BP → DHAP + G3P (dihydroxyacetone phosphate; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) is acted on by what enzyme
aldolase
48
DHAP can be turned to G3P by what enzyme
phosphotriose isomerase
49
Pay off Phase of glycolysis
Step 5: G3P → 1,3 BPG (Biphosphoglycerine)
Step 6: 1,3 BPG → 3PG (3-phosphoglycerate)
Step 7: 3PG → 2PG (2-phosphoglycerate)
Step 8: 2PG → PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate)
Step 9: PEP → pyruvate
50
G3P → 1,3 BPG (Biphosphoglycerine) is acted on by what enzyme
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase or G3P dehydrogenase
51
1,3 BPG → 3PG (3-phosphoglycerate) is acted on by what enzyme
1,3 BPG kinase
52
only reversible kinase
1,3 BPG kinase
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3PG → 2PG (2-phosphoglycerate) is acted on by what enzyme
phosphoglycerate mutase
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2PG → PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) is acted on by what enzyme
enolase
55
It is both an endocrine and exocrine organ in the control of carbohydrate metabolism
pancreas
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as endocrine gland, pancreas secretes what
insulin, glucagon, somatostatin
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as exocrine gland, pancreas secretes what
amylase
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The primary hormone responsible for the entry of glucose into the cell
insulin
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insulin is synthesized by
β-cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
60
the only hormone that decreases glucose levels
insulin
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hypoglycemic agent
insulin
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insulin has what type of relationship with glucagon?
reciprocal
63
where is insulin stored?
liver, fat, and skeletal muscles
64
Promotes glycogenesis, lipogenesis, and glycolysis; suppresses glycogenolysis,
insulin
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sample requirement for insulin measurement
serum
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serum insulin measurement result in presence of hemolysis
falsely low
67
insulin reference value
2.6 - 24.9 mcIU/mL
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primary hormone responsible for increasing glucose – hyperglycemic agent.
glucagon
69
Glucagon is synthesized by the
α-cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
70
glucagon is released during what states
stress and fasting states
71
glucagon promotes what
glycogenolysis
72
fasting plasma glucagon value
25 - 50 pg/mL
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these are secreted by the cells of the zona fasciculata of the adrenal gland
cortisol
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released from the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla
catecholamines
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growth hormone is secreted by
anterior pituitary gland
76
Stimulates release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic Hormones
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somatostatin is secreted in two locations, what are they?
pancreas and hypothalamus
78
pancreatic cells that produce somatostatin
delta cells of the islets of Langerhans
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somatostatin inhibits the actions of...
insulin
80
It is also synthesized in the paraventricular and arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus where it participates in prohibiting the function of somatotropin and thyrotropin
somatostatin
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fasting plasma glucose reference for indication of hyperglycemia
≥ 126 mg/dL
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Warning signs and symptoms of --- are related to the central nervous system
hypoglycemia
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Whipple's Triad
1. typical symptoms are seen
2. low blood sugar concentration of < 55 mg/dL
3. symptoms are alleviated by glucose administration
84
glucagon and other glycemic hormones are released into the circulation at this value of plasma glucose
65 - 70 mg/dL
85
observable symptoms of hypoglycemia appear at this value of plasma glucose
50 - 55 mg/dL
86
is suggested to observe the hypoglycemic “dip” which is often not seen until after 3 hours.
5 hour glucose tolerance test
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determines fasting hypoglycemia with blood samples drawn at 2 mins to 2 hours interval.
Tolbutamide tolerance test
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determines reactive hypoglycemia by measuring the response of insulin to a “cocktail meal”
Mixed-meal tolerance test
89
post prandial blood sample may be drawn at ---- mins with a baseline fasting plasma glucose.
15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 mins
90
may be performed but with great caution in patients with suspected hypoglycemia because the procedure can induce severe reactive hypoglycemia, causing loss of consciousness and even shock.
glucose tolerance test
91
Neurogenic symptoms of hypoglycemia
tremors, palpitations, anxiety, diaphoresis
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Neuroglycopenic symptoms of hypoglycemia
dizziness, tingling, blurred vision, confusion, behavioral changes
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the intentional attempt to induce low blood glucose levels
factitious hypoglycemia
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results from exogenous self-administration of insulin or insulin secretagogues medications
factitious hypoglycemia
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Group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin receptors, or both.
Diabetes Mellitus
96
Glucosuria occurs when the plasma glucose level exceeds ---- with normal renal function
180 mg/dL
97
--- develops in DM from excessive synthesis of acetyl-CoA, as the body attempts to obtain required energy from stored fat in the absence of an adequate supply of carbohydrate metabolites.
Ketosis
98
In severe DM, the ratio of β-hydroxybutyrate to acetoacetae is
6:1
99
absolute insulin deficiency
insulinopenia
100
What type of DM individuals have insulinopenia due to loss of pancreatic β-cells and depend on insulin to sustain life and prevent ketosis.
Type 1
101
Other names for type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM), Juvenile Onset Diabetes Mellitus, Brittle Diabetes, Ketosis-prone Diabetes
102
It is a result of cellular-mediated autoimmune destruction of β-cells of the pancreas
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
103
% reduction of β-cells required to induce symptomatic type 1 DM
80 - 90%
104
this locus is the major histocompatibility complex on chromosome number 6
HLA-DR/DQ
105
Insulin Autoantibodies (IAA) are more common in --- who develop type 1 DM, whereas glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) in ---
young children
adults
106
simplest carbohydrate
glycoaldehyde
107
only carbohydrate to be directly used for energy
glucose
108
