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Carbohydrates (wip) Flashcards

1
Q

Organisms rely on the — of complex organic compounds to obtain energy

A

oxidation

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2
Q

Three general types of organic compounds:

A

carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids

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3
Q

are hydrates of aldehyde or ketone derivatives based on the location of the carbon-oxygen functional group.

A

Carbohydrates

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4
Q

It is the major food source and energy supply for the body or stored primarily in the liver and muscle as glycogen.

A

Carbohydrates

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5
Q

Carbohydrate storage form and where

A

glycogen in the liver and muscles

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6
Q

simple sugars that contain four to eight carbons and only one aldehyde or ketone group

A

Monosaccharides

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7
Q

The most common hexose monosaccharides include

A

glucose, fructose, and galactose

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8
Q

Formed when two monosaccharide units are joined by a glycosidic linkage

A

Disaccharides

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9
Q

The most common disaccharides are

A

maltose, lactose, sucrose

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10
Q

The chaining of 3 to 10 sugar units

A

Oligosaccharides

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11
Q

Formed by the linkage of many monosaccharide units

A

Polysaccharides

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12
Q

The most common polysaccharides are

A

starch and glycogen

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13
Q

what is plant-based glucose molecules and animal-based glucose molecules

A

starch and glycogen

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14
Q

these carbohydrates can reduce other compounds while they themselves are oxidized.

A

reducing substances

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15
Q

To be a reducing substance, the carbohydrate must contain an

A

active (available) ketone or an aldehyde group

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16
Q

Examples of common-reducing sugars include:

A

glucose, maltose, fructose, lactose, and galactose.

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17
Q

The most common nonreducing sugar is

A

sucrose

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18
Q

table sugar

A

sucrose

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19
Q

Glucose is metabolized inside the cytoplasm into

A

2 pyruvate molecules and 2 ATP molecules

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20
Q

Process where glucose is metabolized

A

Glycolysis

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21
Q

Glycolysis does not require oxygen and readily occurs in the absence of oxygen. This makes it an — process.

A

anaerobic

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22
Q

pyruvate molecules can be transformed into either lactate or ethanol by a process called

A

fermentation

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23
Q

The utilization of oxygen to transform the glycolysis by-product into high energy molecules is called

A

aerobic cellular respiration

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24
Q

When the cells of the body have high levels of ATP, pyruvate and lactate molecules can be recycled to reform the glucose via a process called

A

gluconeogenesis

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25
Q

begins the cleavage of a-1, 4-glycosidic linkages in the mouth. This breaks it down into smaller polysaccharide and oligosaccharides.

A

Salivary α-Amylase

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26
Q

These polysaccharides are inherently too large for blood transport and cell uptake. Therefore, our digestive system utilizes —- to break them down into smaller components.

A

proteases

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27
Q

the pancreas release a more potent a-amylase into the small intestine that breaks it down into disaccharides (maltose) and trisaccharide (maltotriose).

A

Pancreatic α-Amylase

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28
Q

Pancreatic α-Amylase breaks carbohydrates down into disaccharides (—) and trisaccharide (—).

A

maltose and maltotriose

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29
Q

this enzyme breaks down maltose into its glucose constituents

A

Maltase (brush border)

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30
Q

this digests maltotriose and other glucose-based oligosugars

A

α-Glucosidase (brush border)

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31
Q

breaks down limit dextrin units that have a-1, 6-linkages

A

α -Dextrinase

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32
Q

metabolism of glucose molecule to pyruvate or lactate for production of energy

A

Glycolysis

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33
Q

formation of glucose-6-phosphate from noncarbohydrate sources

A

Gluconeogenesis

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34
Q

breakdown from glycogen to glucose for use as energy

A

Glycogenolysis

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35
Q

conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage

A

Glycogenesis

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36
Q

conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids

A

Lipogenesis

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37
Q

decomposition of fat

A

Lipolysis

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38
Q

Preparatory phase: Stage of Phosphorylation

A

Step 1: glucose → G6P (glucose-5-phosphate)

Step 2: G6P → F6P (fructose-6-phosphate)

Step 3: F6P → F1, 6 BP (fructose 1-6 biphosphate)

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39
Q

glucose → G6P (glucose-5-phosphate) is acted on by what enzyme

A

glucokinase or hexokinase

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40
Q

first irreversible step of glycolysis

A

glucose → G6P (glucose-5-phosphate)

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41
Q

G6P → F6P (fructose-6-phosphate) is acted on by what enzyme

A

phosphohexose isomerase

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42
Q

F6P → F1, 6 BP (fructose 1-6 biphosphate) is acted on by what enzyme

A

phosphofructokinase I

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43
Q

bottleneck of the pathway, 2nd irreversible step of glycolysis

A

F6P → F1, 6 BP (fructose 1-6 biphosphate)

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44
Q

Step 3 of glycolysis cofactor catalyst to make reaction faster

A

magnesium

45
Q

Prep phase: Stage of Splitting

A

Step 4: F1,6BP → DHAP + G3P (dihydroxyacetone phosphate; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)

46
Q

stage where a 6 carbon compound splits into two 3 carbon compounds

A

stage of splitting: F1,6BP → DHAP + G3P (dihydroxyacetone phosphate; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)

47
Q

F1,6BP → DHAP + G3P (dihydroxyacetone phosphate; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) is acted on by what enzyme

A

aldolase

48
Q

DHAP can be turned to G3P by what enzyme

A

phosphotriose isomerase

49
Q

Pay off Phase of glycolysis

A

Step 5: G3P → 1,3 BPG (Biphosphoglycerine)

Step 6: 1,3 BPG → 3PG (3-phosphoglycerate)

Step 7: 3PG → 2PG (2-phosphoglycerate)

Step 8: 2PG → PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate)

Step 9: PEP → pyruvate

50
Q

G3P → 1,3 BPG (Biphosphoglycerine) is acted on by what enzyme

A

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase or G3P dehydrogenase

51
Q

1,3 BPG → 3PG (3-phosphoglycerate) is acted on by what enzyme

A

1,3 BPG kinase

52
Q

only reversible kinase

A

1,3 BPG kinase

53
Q

3PG → 2PG (2-phosphoglycerate) is acted on by what enzyme

A

phosphoglycerate mutase

54
Q

2PG → PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) is acted on by what enzyme

A

enolase

55
Q

It is both an endocrine and exocrine organ in the control of carbohydrate metabolism

A

pancreas

56
Q

as endocrine gland, pancreas secretes what

A

insulin, glucagon, somatostatin

57
Q

as exocrine gland, pancreas secretes what

A

amylase

58
Q

The primary hormone responsible for the entry of glucose into the cell

A

insulin

59
Q

insulin is synthesized by

A

β-cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas

60
Q

the only hormone that decreases glucose levels

A

insulin

61
Q

hypoglycemic agent

A

insulin

62
Q

insulin has what type of relationship with glucagon?

A

reciprocal

63
Q

where is insulin stored?

A

liver, fat, and skeletal muscles

64
Q

Promotes glycogenesis, lipogenesis, and glycolysis; suppresses glycogenolysis,

A

insulin

65
Q

sample requirement for insulin measurement

A

serum

66
Q

serum insulin measurement result in presence of hemolysis

A

falsely low

67
Q

insulin reference value

A

2.6 - 24.9 mcIU/mL

68
Q

primary hormone responsible for increasing glucose – hyperglycemic agent.

A

glucagon

69
Q

Glucagon is synthesized by the

A

α-cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.

70
Q

glucagon is released during what states

A

stress and fasting states

71
Q

glucagon promotes what

A

glycogenolysis

72
Q

fasting plasma glucagon value

A

25 - 50 pg/mL

73
Q

these are secreted by the cells of the zona fasciculata of the adrenal gland

A

cortisol

74
Q

released from the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla

A

catecholamines

75
Q

growth hormone is secreted by

A

anterior pituitary gland

76
Q

Stimulates release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex

A

Adrenocorticotropic Hormones

77
Q

somatostatin is secreted in two locations, what are they?

A

pancreas and hypothalamus

78
Q

pancreatic cells that produce somatostatin

A

delta cells of the islets of Langerhans

79
Q

somatostatin inhibits the actions of…

A

insulin

80
Q

It is also synthesized in the paraventricular and arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus where it participates in prohibiting the function of somatotropin and thyrotropin

A

somatostatin

81
Q

fasting plasma glucose reference for indication of hyperglycemia

A

≥ 126 mg/dL

82
Q

Warning signs and symptoms of — are related to the central nervous system

A

hypoglycemia

83
Q

Whipple’s Triad

A
  1. typical symptoms are seen
  2. low blood sugar concentration of < 55 mg/dL
  3. symptoms are alleviated by glucose administration
84
Q

glucagon and other glycemic hormones are released into the circulation at this value of plasma glucose

A

65 - 70 mg/dL

85
Q

observable symptoms of hypoglycemia appear at this value of plasma glucose

A

50 - 55 mg/dL

86
Q

is suggested to observe the hypoglycemic “dip” which is often not seen until after 3 hours.

A

5 hour glucose tolerance test

87
Q

determines fasting hypoglycemia with blood samples drawn at 2 mins to 2 hours interval.

A

Tolbutamide tolerance test

88
Q

determines reactive hypoglycemia by measuring the response of insulin to a “cocktail meal”

A

Mixed-meal tolerance test

89
Q

post prandial blood sample may be drawn at —- mins with a baseline fasting plasma glucose.

A

15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 mins

90
Q

may be performed but with great caution in patients with suspected hypoglycemia because the procedure can induce severe reactive hypoglycemia, causing loss of consciousness and even shock.

A

glucose tolerance test

91
Q

Neurogenic symptoms of hypoglycemia

A

tremors, palpitations, anxiety, diaphoresis

92
Q

Neuroglycopenic symptoms of hypoglycemia

A

dizziness, tingling, blurred vision, confusion, behavioral changes

93
Q

the intentional attempt to induce low blood glucose levels

A

factitious hypoglycemia

94
Q

results from exogenous self-administration of insulin or insulin secretagogues medications

A

factitious hypoglycemia

95
Q

Group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin receptors, or both.

A

Diabetes Mellitus

96
Q

Glucosuria occurs when the plasma glucose level exceeds —- with normal renal function

A

180 mg/dL

97
Q

— develops in DM from excessive synthesis of acetyl-CoA, as the body attempts to obtain required energy from stored fat in the absence of an adequate supply of carbohydrate metabolites.

A

Ketosis

98
Q

In severe DM, the ratio of β-hydroxybutyrate to acetoacetae is

A

6:1

99
Q

absolute insulin deficiency

A

insulinopenia

100
Q

What type of DM individuals have insulinopenia due to loss of pancreatic β-cells and depend on insulin to sustain life and prevent ketosis.

A

Type 1

101
Q

Other names for type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

A

Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM), Juvenile Onset Diabetes Mellitus, Brittle Diabetes, Ketosis-prone Diabetes

102
Q

It is a result of cellular-mediated autoimmune destruction of β-cells of the pancreas

A

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

103
Q

% reduction of β-cells required to induce symptomatic type 1 DM

A

80 - 90%

104
Q

this locus is the major histocompatibility complex on chromosome number 6

A

HLA-DR/DQ

105
Q

Insulin Autoantibodies (IAA) are more common in — who develop type 1 DM, whereas glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) in —

A

young children
adults

106
Q

simplest carbohydrate

A

glycoaldehyde

107
Q

only carbohydrate to be directly used for energy

A

glucose

108
Q
A

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