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Human Nutrition > Carbohydrates > Flashcards

Carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

What is the process of plants taking in carbon dioxide and water, then after capturing energy from the sun, producing glucose and oxygen?

A

photosynthesis

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2
Q

How are carbohydrates categorized?

A
  1. simple
  2. complex
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3
Q

How many types of simple carbohydrates are there?

A
  1. Monosaccharides
  2. Disaccharides
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4
Q

What are the simplest carbohydrates consisting of one sugar molecule?

A

Monosaccharides

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5
Q

What are the building blocks of more complex carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides

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6
Q

What are the three main dietary monosaccharides?

A
  1. Glucose
  2. Galactose
  3. Fructose
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7
Q

Each dietary monosaccharides has 6 carbon atoms. How many Hydrogen and Oxygen do they have?

A

12 Hydrogen, 6 Oxygen.

C6, H12, O6.

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8
Q

What are monosaccharides that have 6 carbon atoms?

A

hexose sugars

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9
Q

What is the difference in the chemical structure between glucose and galactose?

A

one hydroxyl group (-OH) faces in opposite directions

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10
Q

What is the difference in ring structure between Fructose and glucose/galactose?

A

Fructose has a 5-sided ring structure
Glucose/galactose has 6-sided ring structures

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11
Q

What are 5 carbon monosaccharides found in small amounts of fruit?

A

Pentoses

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12
Q

What is synthesized from hexose precursors and incorporated into other compounds?

A

Pentose

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13
Q

What are two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond?

A

Disaccharide

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14
Q

What are the most common disaccharides?

A
  1. sucrose
  2. maltose
  3. lactose
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15
Q

Glucose + Fructose =

A

Sucrose

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16
Q

What is another name for sucrose?

A

table sugar

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17
Q

Glucose + Glucose =

A

Maltose

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18
Q

How many foods consist of maltose?

A

very few

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19
Q

Galactose + Glucose =

A

Lactose

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20
Q

what is another name for lactose?

A

milk sugar

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21
Q

What type of reaction forms disaccharides?

A

Condensation

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22
Q

What determine digestibility of carbohydrates?

A

alpha and beta configuration

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23
Q

What are the two main types of complex carbohydrates?

A

Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides

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24
Q

What type of bond does sucrose have?

A

glucose and fructose with an a(1,2) bond

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24
Q

What kind of complex carbohydrates are prebiotics?

A

Oligosaccharides

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25
Q

What type of bond does lactose have?

A

galactose and glucose with a B(1,4) bond

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26
Q

What type of bond does maltose have?

A

glucose and glucose with a a(1,4) bond

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27
Q

What type of bond is Trehalose?

A

glucose and glucose with an a(1,1)a bond

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28
Q

How many monosaccharides does an oligosaccharide have?

A

3-10 monosaccharide units

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29
Q

How are oligosaccharides digested?

A

by the gut bacteria because they cannot be completely hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes

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30
Q

How many monosaccharides make up polysaccharides?

A

> 10 monosaccharide units. (could range in the thousands)

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31
Q

What is a polysaccharide composed of only one type of monosaccharide?

A

Homopolysaccharide

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32
Q

What is a polysaccharide composed of two or more different types of monosaccharides?

A

Heteropolysaccharide

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33
Q

What are the three most common polysaccharides?

A
  1. Starch
  2. Glycogen
  3. Fiber
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34
Q

What is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants?

A

Starch

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35
Q

What are two forms of starch?

A
  1. Amylose
  2. Amylopectin
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36
Q

What is the difference between Amylose and Amylopectin?

A

Amylose is a linear chain bonded together by a(1,4) glycosidic bonds. (no branches)

Amylopectin has a(1,4) glycosidic bonds and a(1,6) bonds that occur and branched points. (highly branched arrangement).

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37
Q

What is the primary storage form of carbohydrates in animal tissue and localized to the liver and skeletal muscles?

A

Glycogen

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38
Q

Why is it beneficial for Glycogen to be branched?

A

It’s easier to break off a portion at the branch to use rather than breaking carbons off one by one.

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39
Q

What is a polysaccharide that are resistant to digestive enzymes, but a great energy source for intestinal bacteria by breaking it down to gas and short chain fatty acids?

A

Fiber

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40
Q

What is the difference between starch and fiber?

A

The bonds. Starch is bonded with a(1,4) and Fiber is bonded with B(1,4)

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41
Q

Which classification of fiber tends to dissolve in colon and forms a gel, slowing digestion/absorption?

This absorbs water, thus softening fecal matter.

A

Soluble Fiber

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42
Q

Which classification of fiber does not dissolve in water, passes through the GI intact (increasing the fecal weight and volume, decreasing constipation)?

A

Insoluble Fiber

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43
Q

How does fiber effect health?

A
  1. alleviates constipation and reduces risk of diverticulitis
  2. delays absorption of monosaccharides- in turn reduces glycemic index
  3. reduces cholesterol
  4. can bind metals (may bind and cause lower absorption rates
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44
Q

What results when small, protruding pouches form along the wall of the large intestine?

A

Diverticulosis

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45
Q

What are the protruding pouches that form along the large intestines called?

A

Diverticula

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46
Q

What reduces the likely-hood of Diverticular Disease by 40%?

A

Fiber

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47
Q

What parts of the digestive system (in order) break down Carbohydrates into monosaccharides?

A
  1. Mouth
  2. Stomach
  3. Small intestine
  4. Brush Border
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48
Q

What are Hydrolytic enzymes generally called?

A

glycosidases (aka carbohydrates)

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49
Q

What do salivary glands release?

A

salivary a-amylase

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50
Q

What does salivary a-amylase hydrolyzing an a-(1,4) glycosidic bond in amylose create?

A

dextrins

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51
Q

what does salivary a-amylase hydrolyzing an a(1,4) glycosidic bond in amylopectin form?

A

dextrins

52
Q

where does digestion of amylose and amylopectin start?

A

in the mouth

53
Q

which a-amylase interacts first in digestion?

A

salivary a-amylase

54
Q

which a-amylase interacts after salivary a-amylase?

A

Pancreatic a-amylase

55
Q

what does the acidity of gastric juices do to the enzymatic activity of salivary a-amylase for amylose?

A

destroys the activity

56
Q

What does the acidity of gastric juices do the enzymatic activity of salivary a-amylase for amylopectin

A

destroys the activity

57
Q

What happens to the dextrins in the stomach?

A

No further digestion of dextrins. Dextrins pass unchanged into the small intestine

58
Q

what does pancreatic a-amylase do to amylose?

A

hydrolyzes a-1,4 glycosidic bonds to turn into maltose

59
Q

what does pancreatic a-amylase do to amylopectin?

A

hydrolyzes a-1,4 glycosidic bonds in amylopectin and dextrin are broken down into maltose and limit dextrins.

60
Q

Is there any digestion of amylose and amylopectin in the stomach?

A

No

61
Q

Where is the maltase enzyme located at?

A

Brush Border

62
Q

How is amylose digested in the Brush Border?

A

After salivary digestion, Maltose is hydrolyzed by maltase turning into glucose.

63
Q

What does maltose form into after reacting with maltase?

A

free glucose molecules

64
Q

How is amylopectin digested in the brush border?

A

a(1,6) bonds in limit dextrins are hydrolyzed by a-dextrinase.

65
Q

What does dextrin turn into after reacting with a-dextrinase?

A

free glucose molecules

66
Q

Where does the digestion of disaccharides take places?

A

Brush border of the small intestine

67
Q

What do intestinal disaccharidases do?

A

hydrolyze disaccharides

68
Q

after disaccharides react with disachharidases, Where do resulting monosaccharides go?

A

transported into enterocytes

69
Q

What is the deficiency of lactase, the enzyme that digests lactose?

A

Lactose Intolerance

70
Q

How does lactose intolerance cause symptoms like bloating, nausea, flatulance, diarrhea, etc.?

A

Since most lactose enters the large intestines undigested (lack of lactase in SI), the bacteria digests the lactose.

71
Q

How is lactose intolerance diagnosed in a clinical setting?

A

approximately two hours after (25-50g) lactose ingestion, two components can diagnose lactose intolerance

  1. no increase in blood glucose
  2. increase of hydrogen via breath test (H is byproduct)
72
Q

How do monosaccharides go from the GI tract into the blood?

A

absorption through enterocyte in small intestine.

73
Q

True or False

The mechanism of absorption differs among the different monosaccharides.

A

True

74
Q

How are glucose and galactose transported through the enterocyte?

A

Glucose/Galactose transport into the enterocyte by moving from lower to higher concentration utilizing ATP.
=active transportation

75
Q

What type of transport does glucose and galactose use?

A

Active Transport

76
Q

How is fructose transported through the enterocyte?

A

Moves from higher to lower concentration with assistance from transport proteins. (but does not require ATP)

Facilitated transport
apical - GLUT5
basolateral - GLUT2

77
Q

What type of transport does fructose use?

A

facilitated diffusion

apical - GLUT5
basolateral - GLUT2

78
Q

Where do the absorbed monosaccharides circulate too within the hepatic portal system

A

Liver

79
Q

What is the difference between apical membrane and basolateral membrane

A

Apical: closest to the lumen of the small intestine; hosts SGLT1 activity.

basolateral: membrane away from the lumen; Hosts GLUT2 and sodium pumps

80
Q

Where is GLUT5 and what does it do?

A

in the enterocyte; transports fructose from apical to basolateral GLUT2 using facilitative transport.

81
Q

What type of transport has molecules move from low to high concentration and uses energy?

A

active transport

82
Q

What type of transport utilizes membrane proteins to go across the plasma membranes?

A

facilitated transport

83
Q

What type of transport have molecules move from high to low concentration not requiring energy?

A

Passive Transport

84
Q

What carrier proteins are used for absorption of Glucose/Galactose from the lumen of the small intestine into circulation.

A

Apical SGLT1 - Basolateral GLUT2

85
Q

What carrier proteins are used for absorption of Fructose

A

Apical GLUT5 - Basolateral GLUT2

86
Q

What GLUT gets recruited when luminal concentrations are high (after a big meal)?

A

GLUT2

87
Q

What transporter allows glucose to re-enter the circulation and exists in the kidney?

A

SGLT2

88
Q

What is a negative consequence of ingesting glucose after SGLT1 and SGLT2 blockade?

A

SGLT1: Indigestion
SGLT2: UTIs

89
Q

What is a positive consequence of ingesting glucose after SGLT1 and SGLT2 blockade?

A

Not storing calories = weight loss

90
Q

What is the “master regulator” of the metabolism and is responsible for maintaining blood glucose levels?

A

Liver

91
Q

What refers to the alterations in blood glucose following a meal?

A

Glycemic Response

92
Q

What is a normal blood glucose range to have at fasting?

A

60-100mg/dl

93
Q

What is a normal blood glucose peak to have after a meal?

A

<140 mg/dl

94
Q

What is the state in which blood glucose levels is within normal range?

A

Euglycemia

95
Q

How does Activity level affect digestion after eating?

A

moderate activity increases digestion rate. Vigorous activity inhibits digestion because of the sympathetic response

96
Q

A partial breakdown product formed during starch digestion, consisting of varying numbers of glucose units

A

Dextrin

97
Q

A partial breakdown product formed during amylopectin digestion that contains three to four glucose molecules and an a-1,6 glycosidic bond.

A

limit dextrins

98
Q

What tract holds SGLT1?

A

GI tract

99
Q

What tract holds SGLT2?

A

Urinary tract

100
Q

How does SGLT2 inhibitors work?

A

Used in type 2 diabetes to lower blood sugar.

Differ from most anti diabetic drugs by causing kidneys to excrete glucose into the urine instead of increasing insulin/insulin sensitivity.

101
Q

What are 3 AUC graph differences between high and low glycemic index?

A
  1. Peak High-GI foods cause a rapid rise and fall in blood sugar and insulin levels (spike).

2.Low-GI foods result in slower, steadier rise and fall.

  1. A right shift indicates a longer digesting time.
102
Q

(blood glucose AUC for food w.50g CHO × 100)/(blood glucose AUC for 50g glucose)

A

Glycemic Index

103
Q

What are three limitations over the Glycemic Index?

A
  1. Porportions of what is tested and what people eat in a serving is off.
  2. Some foods have low GI but other health risks (fructose)
  3. Gi influenced by other foods eaten in meal.
104
Q

What is a hormone that shuttles glucose into muscles and comes from the beta cells of the pancreas

A

Insulin

105
Q

What is the goal of insulin?

A

maintain blood glucose levels by facilitating glucose removal from blood stream and into cells of the body

106
Q

What biological effects does insulin have in the muscle?

A

Increase in Glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, protein synthesis.

107
Q

What biological effect does insulin have in the blood vessels?

A

Increase in vasodilation.

108
Q

What biological effect does insulin have in the liver

A

Decrease in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis.
Increase in glycogen synthesis.

109
Q

What biological effects does insulin have in the fat cells?

A

decrease in lipolysis
Increase in FA uptake and TG synthesis.

110
Q

what means “formation of new sugar” and occurs in the liver

A

Gluconeogenesis

111
Q

What is the biochemical pathway in which glycogen breaks down into glucose-1-phosphate and glucose?

A

glycogenolysis

112
Q

what hormone formed in the pancreas promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver?

A

glucagon

113
Q

What hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas decrease the amount of glucose in the blood?

A

insulin

114
Q

What disease occurs when blood glucose is too high due to insulin resistance?

A

Type 2 diabetes

115
Q

Does glucagon decrease or increase blood glucose?

A

increase

116
Q

does insulin decrease or increase blood glucose?

A

decrease

117
Q

How does glucagon work?

A

promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose

promotes use of noncarbohydrate sources to make glucose

118
Q

What stimulates the pancreatic a-cells to release glucagon?

A

low blood glucose levels

119
Q

What is a gut-derived hormone processed from the glucagon gene?

A

Glucagon like peptide 1 (GLP-1)

120
Q

What stimulates the release of GLP1 from intestinal cells?

A

glucose in the intestines

121
Q

GLP1 collectively accounts for how much insulin secretion? %

A

70%

122
Q

What hormone stimulates insulin secretion and inhibits glucagon secretion?

A

GLP-1

123
Q

What effect does GLP-1 stimulating insulin and inhibiting glucagon secretion have on blood glucose concentrations?

A

GLP-1 limits the rise of glucose after a meal and postpones glucose falling below normal levels.

124
Q

How long does GLP-1 last?

A

1/2 <2 minutes because it is broken down by an dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP4)

125
Q

Is GLP-1 more active or less active in patients with type 2 diabetes?

A

less active.

126
Q

What is a drug that effects GLP1 and how does it work?

A

DPP4 Inhibitors: sitagliptin, inhibits glp-1 breaking down and allowing more work.

GLP agonist: trulicity, must be injected, increases insulin via GLP-1 receptors.

127
Q

What does the fate of glucose depend on once it leaves the circulation and enters target tissues?

A

the energy needs of the body.

128
Q

What glucose transporter is insulin dependent

A

GLUT4

Human Nutrition (5 decks)

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