California History Flashcards

Question

CAH - New World - First Explorers - Christopher Columbus

Answer 1

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was the first European to discover the New World in 1492 (with the exception of the Norse ~500 years earlier), although he didn’t realize it at the time. He mistakenly thought the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola were apart of East Asia. Others had possibly been there, but it was Columbus's expedition that set off the Age of Discovery in the Americas. He would make three further voyages to the New World. It is uncertain if he ever knew he discovered North and South America. Recent scholars have given attention to his role in the extinction of the Taíno people, his promotion of slavery, and allegations of tyranny towards Spanish colonists, which have tarnished his widely venerated immage. Columbus was actually from Genoa, which today is a part of Italy, but he was funded by and sailed under the Spanish flag.

Answer 2

Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) was also born in Italy, but he eventually became a Spanish citizen. You might notice what his biggest legacy in the new world is - his name. Vespucci first demonstrated in about 1502 that Brazil and the West Indies did not represent Asia's eastern outskirts as initially conjectured from Columbus' voyages, but instead constituted an entirely separate landmass hitherto unknown to people of the Old World. A very well-educated man, he figured out the Earth's circumference at the equator within about 50 miles of accuracy. It was this information that helped him realize he was far from Asia. In Vespucci's honor, Martin Waldseemüller named the land mass America when he published a map in his Cosmographiae Introductio in 1507.

Answer 3

Conquistadors were soldiers/explorers who sailed for personal profit under the banner of the Spanish crown, known for conquering Mexico and Peru in the 16th century. Conquistadors always had priests with them whose duty it was to bring Christianity to the natives they encountered. Some of the most well known are Francisco Pizarro, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Juan Ponce de Leon, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, and Hernando Cortes.

Answer 4

Francisco Pizarro (1471-1541) is most known for his defeat of the Inca in 1535. Pizarro basically took down this great empire with about 150 men. Many factors led to this easy defeat: A mix of deception on Pizarro's part, arrogance on Atahualpa's (the Incan leader) part, and the fact that the Inca had just encountered their own civil war.

Answer 5

Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1519) came from a poor Spanish family, but he rose to be famous for being the first European to cross Panama and actually see the Pacific Ocean in 1513. When he climbed a peak alone on the expedition, he saw the great water mass and claimed it for Spain.

Answer 6

Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521) is most famous for searching for and possibly finding the Fountain of Youth. Of course, fame and fact are not the same thing. It was published after his death that this was his reason for exploration. What we know as more dependable information is that he was the first European to step foot in Florida. So, he is the first of the age of discovery in 1513 to step on what is today U.S. soil.

Answer 7

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (1510-1554) is another conquistador known for looking for something thought of as a myth. He was looking for El Dorado - the seven cities of gold. El Dorado was quite possibly a deception on the part of natives. They may have been telling the Spanish about it so that they would go off to find it and leave them alone. It is also possible that it just grew out of old stories of the great cities of some of the early American civilizations. Either way, this quest for gold led Coronado to be the first European to explore the American Southwest in what is today Arizona and New Mexico.

Answer 8

In 1521, Hernando Cortes (1485-1547) defeated the Aztecs. This is what he is most known for. He is remembered for walking in and conquering a great empire, partially by being mistaken for a god. Another important accomplishment for Cortes is that he was the first Spanish conquistador to be granted a hacienda.

Answer 9

During the colonial era of New Spain during the 1500's, the Spanish crown granted Haciendas, or land holdings to the conquistadors and other nobles. This land was theirs to farm or to lease to other Spaniards of lesser social status. In comparison, the encomienda system is what provides the labor for the hacienda, where the holder was granted the responsibility for a number of natives.

Answer 10

A hacienda, in the colonies of the Spanish Empire, is an estate, similar in form to a Roman villa, granted to a conquistador, used mostly as a business enterprise. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or factories. Many haciendas combined these activities. Smaller holdings were termed estancias or ranchos that were owned almost exclusively by Spaniards and criollos (a person from Spanish South or Central America, especially one of pure Spanish descent) and in rare cases by mixed-race individuals. In 1529, Hernando Cortes was granted the first hacienda in the New World. The head of a hacienda was called the patrón. Peasants, or peones, worked land that belonged to the patrón. The campesinos worked small holdings, and owed a portion to the patrón.

Answer 11

The encomienda system is what provides the labor for the hacienda. The encomienda was made up of the people who lived on a granted hacienda. These people would work for the hacienda’s patrón, who was granted the hacienda, and the peninsulares, who were in charge of managing the encomienda’s for the patrón. Ferdinand and Isabella mandated that it was the responsibility of the person granted the encomienda to compensate their subjects, protect them, educate them in the Christian faith and make sure the people could live off the land. This, of course, often did not happen. The encomienda systems was divided into casts: At the top were peninsulares, second class below the peninsulares were the criollos, third class was made up of two groups called the mestizos and mulattos, and the lowest group was captured Aztec, Native Indian tribes, and slaves from Africa.

Answer 12

Peninsulares were the Spanish in control and at the top of the hierarchy.

Answer 13

Second class below the peninsulares were the Criollos (/krēˈōlō/). They were of pure Spanish blood, but were born in the colonies rather than in Spain. They couldn't hold the same status as peninsulares, but they could inherit the land of their parents if they were peninsulares.

Answer 14

Third class was made up of two groups. First, the mestizos were of mixed blood - the children of a peninsular and a Native Indian. Because they had some Spanish blood, they were considered above any native. Mulattos were also of mixed blood - but with African slaves. This third class rarely ever mixed with criollos or peninsulares. They took a slightly higher place in society because they were not purely slave. These were the working class people of the society, mainly in small towns and communities.

Answer 15

The lowest group was captured Aztec, Native Indian tribes, and slaves from Africa, used for labor with essentially no rights. Under the encomienda system, labor was to be treated fairly, with shelter, food, and living supplies. Spain wanted to reduce any chance of overthrow by rebellious groups.

Answer 16

In 1519-1521, the Spanish, under the command of Hernando Cortes, defeated and conquered the Aztec Empire, which was located in present-day Mexico City, known as Tenochtitlan, over 1000 miles from the present-day California border. The Spanish claimed the area as a colony, or settlement controlled by another country, and named it New Spain.

Answer 17

The Mexican War for Independence ended an approximately 300 year era of Spanish colonization. California became part of the newly independent Mexico in 1821.

Answer 18

Possession was transferred to the United States in 1848 as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War.

Answer 19

Though Spanish rule officially ended in 1821, the Spanish colonial period had a lasting impact on California thanks to the missions, pueblos, and ranchos that Spain established.

Answer 20

Missions were religious outposts established by Spanish Catholic orders such as the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits. Though their mission was primarily to spread Catholicism to the Native Americans, the missions also served an important political role by establishing a Spanish presence to ward off competing European claims and keep the native populations controlled through forced labor and relocation. By 1821, Spain had established 21 missions up and down the California coast. The California Missions Trail is now managed by the California Parks Service and the preserved missions attract thousands of visitors every year. See also: Pueblos and ranchos.

Answer 21

While the missions were established to administer and often house the Native population, pueblos (Spanish for town) were established for Spanish and Mexican settlers that moved north. Pueblos founded by the Spanish include Santa Cruz, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Santa Clara. These pueblos were often heavily defended to protect the Spanish settlers from Native attacks. And up until recently, these cities were often ruled according to strict racial hierarchies, as they were in the Spanish area, with citizens of European descent controlling the cities and people of Native and Mexican descent largely shut out from power. See also: Missions and Ranchos.

Answer 22

An important institution that established Spanish control in California was the rancho, large land grants that gave nobles and other important figures control over vast acres of land for farming and raising animals. Spain granted about 30 ranchos during the colonial period. The rancho workers were usually Native Americans, many of whom had been taught Spanish in the missions before going to work on the ranchos. The ranchos also continue to impact the development of California's agricultural economy in terms of land and water usage, the basis for the state's land survey system, and many areas still observe the boundaries of the original ranchos they were built on. See also: Missions and pueblos.

Answer 23

Trouble had been brewing in the American Southwest ever since an indebted Mexican republic attracted immigrants from the U.S. to settle in Texas. Government instability led Texas to declare its independence in 1836 and later a petition for annexation into the United States. After admitting the territory, President Polk sent a diplomat to settle old disputes and offer to buy even more land. Mexico refused to discuss anything. Frustrated, Polk sent the army to occupy disputed borderland, leading to the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). From the outset, the war was controversial in the government and with the American people. Trying to settle the slave issue, the Wilmot Proviso suggested banning African-Americans completely from the land, but it failed. Later, popular sovereignty was introduced. California was captured, and then Mexico City fell. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) largely favored the United States.

Answer 24

(1) Mexico had allowed American immigrants into Texas following its independence from Spain. (2) Mexico eventually had conflicts with American settlers-immigrants who didn’t share the same cultural values. Eventually war broke out and Texas seceded declaring independence in 1836. (3) Polk offered a hefty monetary sum to the Mexican government to cede the California and New Mexico territories, but Mexico declined his offer. (4) The U.S. later annexed Texas on December 29th, 1845, which angered Mexico. Mexico believed that the border was at the Nueces River, while Texas insisted it was the Rio Grande. (5) President Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to this disputed territory angering Mexico and causing skirmishes for which Polk told Congress that Mexico had shed American blood on American soil. (6) On May 13, 1846, Congress approved the Mexican-American War, but America was deeply divided over the issue.

Answer 25

Whigs accused Polk of provoking an unjust war against a weaker neighbor - a concept that contradicted the romantic ideals of Manifest Destiny in which democracy would spread because of its own virtue. The Wilmot Proviso was proposed to appease both abolitionists, who though adding new territory might expand slavery, and Southern slave owners, who didn’t want to allow non-whites into the Union (such as John C. Calhoun), by reserving all of that land for white yeoman farmers. It was defeated by Popular Sovereignty, which let the residents of new territories decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery.

Answer 26

At the outbreak of war the telegraph, a new technology at the time, was used to relay information quickly between New Orleans and NYC. Although the media portrayed the war as a glorious event for America, the public became divided about the war: Those who saw America as a bully pummeling a weaker neighbor and those who saw an opportunity to take all of Mexico. An essay by the famous transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau persuaded many American citizens to stop paying their taxes in protest. 'Civil Disobedience' landed Thoreau in jail.

Answer 27

The Wilmot Proviso was a proposal to prohibit slavery in the territory acquired by the United States at the conclusion of the Mexican War. In 1846, David Wilmot a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania, proposed the Wilmot Proviso. It was proposed to appease both abolitionists, who though adding new territory might expand slavery, and Southern slave owners, who didn’t want to allow non-whites into the Union (such as John C. Calhoun), by reserving all of that land for white yeoman farmers. It was defeated by Popular Sovereignty, which let the residents of new territories decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery.

Answer 28

Popular sovereignty is a political doctrine that the people who live in a region should determine for themselves the nature of their government. In U.S. history, it was applied particularly to the idea that settlers of federal territorial lands should decide the terms under which they would join the Union, primarily applied to the status as free or slave. The first proponent of the concept was Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan, who put the idea forward while opposing the Wilmot Proviso in 1846.

Answer 29

As soon as the United States annexed Texas in 1845-46, President Polk sent a diplomat, John Slidell, to Mexico to negotiate three things: (1) The border. (2) Debts owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. (3) The purchase of California and New Mexico for as much as $50 million before they sold it to Britain. Polk hoped to weave some of these issues together (such as forgiving the debts if the border were settled at the Rio Grande). But Mexico's own government was in turmoil. Slidell failed and was ultimately sent back to Washington.

Answer 30

Zachary Taylor (1784 – 1850) was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850 for the Whig Party. Taylor previously was a career officer in the United States Army, rose to the rank of major general and became a national hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican–American War. As a result, he won election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died sixteen months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery, which had been inflaming tensions in Congress.

Answer 31

Henry David Thoreau (Pronunciation: Thur-oh; 1817-1862) was an American essayist, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, and historian. A leading transcendentalist, Thoreau is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay 'Civil Disobedience' (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state. Henry David Thoreau persuaded many American citizens to stop paying their taxes in protest to the Mexican-American War. 'Civil Disobedience' landed Thoreau in jail.

Answer 32

In 1846, Captain John C. Frémont led American settlers in a rebellion against Mexican authorities in California. They declared the independent 'Bear Flag Republic' and with the navy's help soon asserted that California belonged to the United States. When they met resistance, an army colonel marching through New Mexico came to their rescue and defeated the remaining Mexican forces in California in 1847. Once Mexico City was captured, the peace negotiations included all of California. Frémont later became California’s first senator and the Republican Party’s first candidate for president in 1856.

Answer 33

(1848) First, Mexico agreed to establish an official boundary dividing the two nations at the Rio Grande River. This granted the United States the entirety of the disputed territory of western Texas and prevented any additional differing claims to the area. Second, the United States paid 15 million dollars for the territories of California, New Mexico, and Utah. As a part of this financial package, the United States agreed to assume 3 million dollars worth of Mexican debt to the American government. Finally, Mexico surrendered its people living within the newly acquired United States territory. Fortunately for those Mexicans, the United States provided the option to either stay and assume American citizenship or leave and face uncertainty in a devastated Mexico. The only setback to staying was that the federal government refused to offer protection to lands provincially tended to by Mexicans.

Answer 34

Manifest Destiny was the idea that white Americans were divinely ordained to settle the entire continent of North America. It inspired a variety of measures designed to remove or destroy the native population. US President James K. Polk (1845-1849) is the leader most associated with Manifest Destiny in regards to the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). Manifest Destiny inflamed sectional tensions over slavery, which ultimately led to the Civil War.

Answer 35

James Knox Polk (1795–1849) was the 11th President of the United States (1845–1849). He previously was Speaker of the House of Representatives (1835–1839) and Governor of Tennessee (1839–1841). A protégé of Andrew Jackson, he was a member of the Democratic Party and an advocate of Jacksonian democracy. During Polk's presidency, the United States expanded significantly with the annexation of the Republic of Texas, the Oregon Territory, and the Mexican Cession following the American victory in the Mexican–American War.

Answer 36

Cession means the legal transfer of an object to another party; don't confuse it with secession, which is the action of withdrawing formally from membership of a federation or body, especially a political state.

Answer 37

The California Gold Rush (1848–1855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought approximately 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad. The sudden influx of gold into the money supply reinvigorated the American economy, and the sudden population increase allowed California to go rapidly to statehood, in the Compromise of 1850. The Gold Rush had severe effects on Native Californians and resulted in a precipitous population decline from disease, genocide, and starvation. By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory, to having one of its first two U.S. Senators, John C. Frémont, selected to be the first presidential nominee for the new Republican Party, in 1856.

Answer 38

Democrats nominated Michigan Senator Lewis Cass, in place of Polk, who had endorsed popular sovereignty for the Mexican cession. Frustrated over his pro-slavery leanings, prominent anti-slavery Democrats stomped out of the nominating convention and formed the Free Soil Party with Martin Van Buren as their candidate. The Whigs chose war hero General Zachary Taylor as their candidate. The fact that he was a slaveholder appealed to Southerners, but his 40 years of national military service made him stand in opposition to sectionalism and states' rights, which was a plus for Northerners. Taylor eked out a victory in the 3-way race.

Answer 39

Just a week before the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was finalized, James Marshall found gold at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California. This news eventually reached a local newspaper publisher who proclaimed to the world that there was gold there. Marshall and Sutter were literally forced off the land by the influx of people. Before the gold rush subsided in a few years, 300,000 prospectors from nearly every continent had overrun California. Sutter eventually received a tax settlement from the federal government, but his land was never returned; and, Marshall ended up in a cabin in the California hills and tended a subsistence garden to feed himself.

Answer 40

In 1850, the people of California wanted to become a state. It had been President Taylor's suggestion that they skip the territorial stage and go straight to writing a constitution, so that they could avoid the contentious congressional debate over slavery. Southern lawmakers protested and threatened to secede if the plan were carried out. The president told slavery supporting Democrats that California statehood was legal and he would ensure that statehood was implemented. Unfortunately, "Old Rough and Ready" died before any decisions were made.

Answer 41

In the year 1845, a journalist named John O'Sullivan coined the phrase Manifest Destiny.

Answer 42

1825 - Erie Canal opens in the NE allowing booming industrial towns, like NYC, a much easier way to get their goods to the West. 1830 - With the Indian Removal Act of 1830 the U.S. Congress forcibly moved all Native Americans living in the Southeast to west of the Mississippi River. 1838 - With the 1838 Trail of Tears the U.S. government forced the Cherokee nation to relocate from the East Coast to Oklahoma. 1840 - Hundreds of thousands of settlers begin to take the dangerous Oregon Trail route in search of new life in the West.

Answer 43

1845 - Texas becomes a state on Dec. 29th. 1846 - With the Oregon Treaty of 1846 the U.S. gained the Oregon Territory from England. 1846-1848 - Mexican-American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo gave the U.S. not only Texas, but the massive area that would become parts of Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. 1848 - Gold discovered at Sutter’s Mill setting off the California Gold Rush. 1860–1861 - The Pony Express was a mail service delivering messages, newspapers, and mail.

Answer 44

The Erie Canal is a canal in New York, United States that is part of the east–west, cross-state route of the New York State Canal System (formerly known as the New York State Barge Canal). Originally, it ran 363 miles (584 km) from where Albany meets the Hudson River to where Buffalo meets Lake Erie. It was built to create a navigable water route from New York City and the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. When completed in 1825, it was the second longest canal in the world (after the Grand Canal in China) and greatly affected the development and economy of New York, New York City, and the United States.

Answer 45

The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830, authorizing the president to grant unsettled lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders. A few tribes went peacefully, but many resisted the relocation policy.

Answer 46

The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of Native American peoples from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west (usually west of the Mississippi River) that had been designated as Indian Territory. The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their new designated reserve, and many died before reaching their destinations. The forced removals included members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Ponca, and Ho-Chunk/Winnebago nations. The phrase "Trail of Tears" originates from a description of the removal of many Native American tribes, including the infamous Cherokee Nation relocation in 1838.

Answer 47

The Oregon Trail, starting around 1840, is a 2,170-mile (3,490 km) historic East–West, large-wheeled wagon route and emigrant trail in the United States that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon. The eastern part of the Oregon Trail spanned part of the future state of Kansas, and nearly all of what are now the states of Nebraska and Wyoming. The western half of the trail spanned most of the future states of Idaho and Oregon.

Answer 48

The Oregon Treaty is a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United States that was signed on June 15, 1846, in Washington, D.C. Signed under the presidency of James K. Polk, the treaty brought an end to the Oregon boundary dispute by settling competing American and British claims to the Oregon Country; the area had been jointly occupied by both Britain and the U.S. since the Treaty of 1818.

Answer 49

The Pony Express was a mail service delivering messages, newspapers, and mail. Officially operating as the Leavenworth and Pike's Peak Express Company of 1859, in 1860 it became the Central Overland California and Pikes Peak Express Company; this firm was founded by William H. Russell, Alexander Majors, and William B. Waddell, all of whom were notable in the freighting business. During its 18 months of operation, it reduced the time for messages to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts to about 10 days. From April 3, 1860 to October 1861, it became the West's most direct means of east–west communication before the transcontinental telegraph was established (October 24, 1861), and was vital for tying the new state of California with the rest of the United States.

Answer 50

The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000) and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000) for a total of sixty-eight million francs ($15 million, equivalent to $573 billion in 2016). The Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces.

Answer 51

The Rush–Bagot Treaty or Rush–Bagot Disarmament was a treaty between the United States and the United Kingdom limiting naval armaments on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain, following the War of 1812. It was ratified by the United States Senate on April 16, 1818, and was confirmed by Canada, following Confederation in 1867. This was done in conjunction with the 'Treaty of 1818’ that reached a joint occupancy agreement in what is today Oregon; thousands of settlers crossed overland to the new territory.

Answer 52

President James Monroe (1817-1825) worked to achieve continentalism, securing America's border with Britain/Canada at the Rocky Mountains (49th parallel), with the 'Treaty of 1818’, and with Spain/Mexico at the Pacific Ocean (42nd Parallel), with the 'Adams–Onís Treaty' completed in 1819. He established the 'Rush-Bagot Treaty’ in 1818 which disarmed the Great Lakes with Britain, he purchased Florida from Spain (‘Adams–Onís Treaty’), and he wrote the Monroe Doctrine. President John Quincy Adams (1825-1829), also a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, went beyond the idea of mere expansion. His goal was called continentalism because he intended that the United States would not just occupy the lands void of European settlers, but encompass all of North America. See also: President James Polk (1845-1849).

Answer 53

Continentalism refers to the agreements or policies that favor the regionalization and/or cooperation between nations within a continent. The term is used more often in the European and North American contexts, but the concept has been applied to other continents including Africa, Asia, and South America. Historically, continentalism in the US later became largely associated with the ideology of Manifest Destiny, which included Spanish territories (now Latin America), the western U.S. as well as Canada. Due to this, the continentalism grew so much in the United States that it transformed into nationalism. Most of the inhabitants of this country, if not all, call themselves "Americans" as a demonym (a proper noun used to denote the natives or inhabitants of a particular country, state, city, etc.), and say America to refer to the country instead of the continents of North and South America.

Answer 54

- God-given purpose (or destiny) - National defense. - Economic reasons and secure ports to Asia on the West Coast. - Influence of slavery into new places. - Baby boom plus dramatic increases in immigration more than quadrupled the population between the turn of the century and 1850, and all those people needed somewhere to go. - Economic downturns occurred in both 1818 and 1839. - And new technology such as steam power and the telegraph made the prospect of moving westward a little less intimidating.

Answer 55

Some expansionists didn't want to wait for the US government to achieve manifest destiny. Unauthorized soldiers known as filibusters or freebooters carried out private military expeditions to secure land. The infamous William Walker (1824-1860), an American physician, lawyer, journalist, and mercenary, attempted to colonize parts of Mexico and Nicaragua. Walker usurped the presidency of the Republic of Nicaragua in 1856 and ruled until 1857, when he was defeated by a coalition of Central American armies. He returned in an attempt to reestablish his control of the region and was captured and executed by the government of Honduras in 1860.

Answer 56

The Transcontinental Railroad reduced travel time from New York to California from as long as six months to as little as a week and the cost for the trip from $1,000 to $150. The reduced travel time and cost created new business and settlement opportunities and enabled quicker and cheaper shipping of goods. Unfortunately, this came at the cost of disrupting Native American tribes and destroying natural resources.

Answer 57

The Gadsden Purchase, or Treaty, was an agreement between the United States and Mexico, finalized in 1854, in which the United States agreed to pay Mexico $10 million for a 29,670 square mile portion of Mexico that later became part of Arizona and New Mexico. Gadsden’s Purchase provided the land necessary for a southern transcontinental railroad and attempted to resolve conflicts that lingered after the Mexican-American War.

Answer 58

Spark arrestors solved fire problems. Railroad executives agreed on a single track width. A businessman identified a more northerly pass through the Rocky Mountains. George Westinghouse invented air brakes that could stop locomotives dependably. The Pullman Company made railroad cars that were actually comfortable, with places to sleep and eat.

Answer 59

The Central Pacific Railroad began in Sacramento, California, and worked its way east. Relying heavily on Chinese immigrant labor, the Central Pacific broke ground in 1863, but the work was largely delayed until the end of the Civil War. The Union Pacific Railroad began laying track in Omaha, Nebraska, and moved westward with the help of Irish immigrants.

Answer 60

On May 10, 1869, the two railroads met at Promontory Summit, in Utah, with much fanfare and celebration. The last spikes that would join the two were made of silver and gold and were driven ceremonially by railroad executives. (No, they weren't left in the ground!) The entire nation celebrated as the message arrived by telegraph: the transcontinental railroad was done. The Liberty Bell rang, a 100-gun salute fired in New York City. Parades and parties erupted across the country.

Answer 61

- Reduction of time that it took to cross the nation from months to six days. - Americans' concept of time and work: Time zones, “white collar” job, postal service was revolutionized, and America’s first extremely wealthy men. - Increased regional functionality in relation to economics. - Increased corruption led to the Populist Movement later in the century and ultimately led to the passage of the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1877 (dissolved 1996). - In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, effectively banning further immigration from China and denying citizenship to immigrants of Chinese origin. - The increase of white settlement stimulated by the expansion of the railroad was responsible for destroying or permanently altering the way of life of several Native American nations.

Answer 62

The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was a regulatory agency in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. The agency's original purpose was to regulate railroads (and later trucking) to ensure fair rates, to eliminate rate discrimination, and to regulate other aspects of common carriers, including interstate bus lines and telephone companies. Congress expanded ICC authority to regulate other modes of commerce beginning in 1906. The agency was abolished in 1996, and its remaining functions were transferred to the Surface Transportation Board. The Commission's five members were appointed by the President with the consent of the United States Senate. This was the first independent agency (or so-called Fourth Branch).

Answer 63

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 banned all Chinese workers from entering the U.S., and it effectively banned most Chinese from entering the U.S. for any reason. It was the first time American immigration policy directly stopped a single ethnic group from entering the country. The Exclusion Act was motivated by a struggling economy that made it harder to find work and a fear that immigrants would take American jobs. Discrimination against the Chinese was so bad that it affected political relations between the United States and China. However, when the United States needed China as an ally in World War II, the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed. The Chinese Exclusion Act had notable influences on American culture, including the tendency to blame immigrant or ethnic groups for social and economic problems.

Answer 64

He invented air brakes that could stop trains dependably.

Answer 65

The policy of protecting the interests of native-born or established inhabitants against those of immigrants. Or a return to or emphasis on traditional or local customs, in opposition to outside influences. It most often has a strong racist component. In scholarly studies nativism is a standard technical term. The term is typically not accepted by those who hold this political view, however. Dindar (2009) wrote "nativists... do not consider themselves as nativists. For them it is a negative term and they rather consider themselves as 'Patriots'".

Answer 66

In 1943, the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by the Magnuson Act because China had become a U.S. ally against the Japanese in World War II. However, many of the state laws that restricted Chinese rights, or made it illegal for them to marry white Americans, still existed. By 1967, the United States Supreme Court formally declared that all of these laws were unconstitutional.

Answer 67

Located in California, the Angel island has roots as a Native American outpost. The Miwoks used Angel Island for thousands of years, and its food and other resources greatly benefited them. The military had a presence on the island for around 100 years. The island was vital to the success of many campaigns. The island's most well-known history is that of its immigration and quarantine center. Many hopefuls arrived to the U.S. at this point of entry, though many would be turned away. The main continent from which Angel Island immigrants came was Asia. Within that continent, the main country of origin was China. It presently serves as a state park.

Answer 68

The Progressive Movement was a period of time during the late 19th and early 20th centuries when many Americans supported government reform. Those involved in the movement were known as Reformists or Progressives. They were mostly urban, middle-class citizens. The Progressives had three main goals: Strengthening democracy, eliminating corruption, and protecting laborers. Republican Presidents Teddy Roosevelt and William Taft and Democratic President Woodrow Wilson each openly supported the Progressive Movement.

Answer 69

In order to strengthen democracy, Progressives advocated for referendums, initiatives, and recalls. A referendum is a direct popular vote on a proposed law or constitutional amendment proposed by a legislature. An initiative is an issue to be voted on, brought to a ballot through petition by citizens. A recall is a political process that gives voters the power to remove elected officials from office before the official's term has ended. Passed in 1919 and ratified in 1920, the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote and vastly increased political participation.

Answer 70

In order to eliminate corruption, Progressives advocated for creating new organizations to monitor city governments, such as replacing mayors and city councils with a commission of nonpartisan administrators and public services becoming subject to government regulations that were supervised by regulatory commissions. They also pushed for the growth of municipally owned utilities, opposed to privately owned. They advocated for direct primaries, which is a preliminary election that allows all members of a political party the opportunity to take part in that party's nomination. This influenced the creation of the 17th Amendment which allows the direct election of senators, rather than selection by state legislatures.

Answer 71

In order to protect laborers, Progressives advocated for minimum work ages, maximum work hours, workers’ compensation, and safety regulations. In regards to minimum working ages, the National Child Labor Committee orchestrated a well-publicized campaign using pictures of children as young as eight working in factories. Most changes occurred after the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire.

Answer 72

Most Progressive changes in regards to protecting laborers occurred after the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire. This tragedy was a largely preventable New York factory fire that killed 145 people, mostly immigrant women. Most workers died as a result of neglected safety measures. The disaster brought widespread attention to the sweatshop conditions of many factories and led to new regulations. New York enacted factory safety laws, set a 54-hour workweek for women and prohibited children under the age of 14 from working. Other states quickly followed suit.

Answer 73

The convention for the Constitution of 1849 consisted of 48 people, most of whom were not born in CA. They heavily modeled the state constitution on the U.S. Constitution and other existing states. It was accepted in 1849 and went into effect in 1850. Although it had an bicameral legislature, executive office, and judicial branch, it was different in that it put the “Bill of Rights” in the main document in Article I called the “Declaration of Rights”. In Article I it also stipulated that slavery would never be permitted in CA. Article II contained a declaration that any white, male citizen could vote, as well as any Mexican-born males who had agreed to become American citizens.

Answer 74

Between 1850 and 1879 California’s high growth quickly made its constitution ineffective. Legislators proposed a new constitutional convention to the voters three times, but each was rejected. In 1877 voters finally approved a convention. Motivation stemmed from the government’s inability to stop increasing rates of Chinese immigration. The Constitution of 1879 went into effect in 1880 and still exists today. It was even more detailed in preserving the rights of Californians (reflecting a growing distrust in government officials), and contains more thorough protections of freedom of speech and protections against cruel or unusual punishments than the US Constitution. However, it also clearly stated that no native of China could vote in California, again capturing the growing anti-Chinese paranoia in the state.

Answer 75

The CA Constitution of 1879 was easier to amend than the previous version. By the turn of the century average Californians were distrustful of government officials and interest groups who would use this to their advantage. In reaction to this, in the early 20th century the constitution was changed to allow amendments through individual initiatives brought forth by individual voters and not just the state legislature. In fact, a constitutional amendment can be placed on the ballot in California by a petition with signatures equaling just 8% of the state's population. As a result, California's constitution was amended 334 times between 1880 and 1962, creating concerns about its length. Finally, measures were passed that would allow a commission to revise the document, during which tens of thousands of redundant or unnecessary words were removed. CA’s constitution still remains lengthy and easier to amend than other states, despite continual attempts to revise and improve it.

Answer 76

Conservation is the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife.

Answer 77

A homesteader named Galen Clark discovered massive sequoia groves and started fighting to protect them from logging around 1855. That fight was soon expanded to include the Yosemite Valley, which in 1864 became the first territory in the USA to be protected from commercial development by Congress and set aside purely for recreational use. In 1890, it was expanded and federally protected even further. Today we call this Yosemite National Park.

Answer 78

After the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906, the City of San Francisco realized they were tragically unprepared in terms of enough water for fire protection and drinking water. As a result, they decided the Hetch Hetchy Valley located in Yosemite National Park was ideally situated to covert into a water reservoir. After years of debate, Hetch Hetchy was dammed and flooded in 1923 with the completion of the O'Shaughnessy Dam. In 1934, the Hetch Hetchy Project began delivering water to the San Francisco Bay Area .

Answer 79

The California Water Wars were a series of political conflicts between the City of Los Angeles and farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California over water rights. In the late 19th century, LA had grown large enough to essentially exhaust its water supply, which threatened it with 'water famines'. In 1913, LA completed an aqueduct-pipeline that brought water from the Owens Valley to LA through illegal coercion. Owens Lake was almost completely drained, which completely ruined the economy of the agricultural communities that relied on it. Local farmers resisted by trying to destroy the aqueduct in 1924 and later through legal means. From 1979 to 1994, the city of Los Angeles was in constant legal battles over the rights to these waters. Finally, the city was forced to stop draining Mono Lake in the 1990's, which has since slowly started to refill.

Answer 80

In the 1960's, environmental concerns became a state issue when a proposal was revealed to build the first commercially viable nuclear power plant in the USA at Bodega Bay. Unfortunately, the site selected for it was right over the San Andreas Fault, the source of most of California's earthquakes. There was also a concern that the plant would impact the fish populations of the coast, which were an important part of local economies as well as natural food chains.

Answer 81

Between the beginning of the Gold Rush in 1848 and the completion of the railroads in 1869, it was generally easier to travel from China to CA than from the East Coast. As a result, a large portion of the first settlers in CA were from China. At first, Chinese immigrants were relatively welcomed because of the demand for labor to work on the railroads and other projects. In 1868, the US government passed the Burlingame Treaty, which allowed for unlimited Chinese immigration to the new state. However, after the railroad was completed and the economy waned, white citizens felt threatened by competition from Chinese immigrants who were willing to work at a lower pay rate. In 1882, the US government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act banning any further Chinese immigration. The act was not repealed until 1943, under the Magnuson Act, when the US and China were allies in WW2.

Answer 82

Japan was having economic difficulties in the late 19th century, which resulted in a large number of immigrants looking for work in CA. CA never formally passed anti-Japanese immigrations laws, but the federal government did form a 'gentleman’s agreement' with Japan restricting immigration: Japan would stop issuing visas allowing citizens to immigrate to the US, while the US would prevent domestic anti-Japanese racism. The later end of the agreement was never upheld. In fact, after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, the US authorized a program of Japanese Internment. Japanese immigrants and Japanese-Americans in CA were forcibly taken from their homes and relocated to internment camps for the duration of World War II. Due to the great number of businesses owned by California's substantial Japanese population, this hurt the economy in many major cities.

Answer 83

European immigrants were more welcomed in the US and CA to mainstream Americans because their cultural practices were similar to their own. In the late 19th century Northern California developed a substantial population of Italian immigrants. The fishing industry, as well as open agricultural land, drew in this population. The Italian immigrants were amongst the groups to help establish California's reputation for producing wine. They faced backlash during WW2, but not nearly to the degree as Japanese-Americans were.

Answer 84

Obviously, since CA was once part of Mexico it has always had a substantial population of Mexican-Americans and Mexican immigrants. Before the Great Depression, there was little restriction on the CA-Mexican border because Mexican labor was vital for agriculture. However, the depression led to a shortage of jobs and an Americans-first policy that led to a restriction of immigrant labor. During WW2, however, labor was once again in demand, so the government issued the Bracero Program which once again allowed Mexican agricultural workers to places like California. In 1994, CA passed Proposition 187 that banned undocumented immigrants from receiving state services, but it was later found unconstitutional and repealed.

Answer 85

The Bracero Program (from the Spanish term bracero, meaning 'manual laborer' or 'one who works using his arms') was a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4, 1942, when the United States signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with Mexico. The agreement guaranteed decent living conditions (sanitation, adequate shelter, and food) and a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour. It also allowed the importation of contract laborers from Guam as a temporary measure during the early phases of World War II. The agreement was extended with the Migrant Labor Agreement of 1951, enacted as an amendment to the Agricultural Act of 1949 (Public Law 78) by Congress, which set the official parameters for the bracero program until its termination in 1964.

Answer 86

California Proposition 187 (also known as the Save Our State [SOS] initiative) was a 1994 ballot initiative to establish a state-run citizenship screening system and prohibit illegal immigrants from using non-emergency health care, public education, and other services in the State of California. Voters passed the proposed law at a referendum on November 8, 1994. The law was challenged in a legal suit and found unconstitutional by a federal district court. In 1999, Governor Gray Davis halted state appeals of this ruling. Republicans' embrace of Proposition 187 has been cited as a key factor for the decline of the Republican Party in California.

Answer 87

The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five separate bills passed by the United States Congress in September 1850, which defused a four-year political confrontation between slave and free states on the status of territories acquired during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). In regards to California, it was admitted as a free state, with its current boundaries.

Answer 88

The Burlingame Treaty, also known as the Burlingame-Seward Treaty of 1868, was a landmark treaty between the United States and Qing China, amending the Treaty of Tientsin, one of the unequal treaties, to establish formal friendly relations between the two nations, with the United States granting China the status of most favored nation in trade and also allowing for unlimited Chinese immigration into the US. It was signed in Washington in 1868 and ratified in Beijing in 1869, the first fully equal treaty China had signed with a western power since the Second Opium War.

Answer 89

The Monroe Doctrine was a United States policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas beginning in 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to take control of any independent state in North or South America would be viewed as "the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." At the same time, the doctrine noted that the U.S. would recognize and not interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. The Doctrine was issued on December 2, 1823 at a time when nearly all Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal had achieved, or were at the point of gaining, independence from the Portuguese and Spanish Empires.

Answer 90

The California Genocide refers to the violence, relocation, and starvation that led to a decrease in the indigenous population of California as a result of Spanish, Mexican, and U.S. occupation of California. The indigenous population of California under Spanish, Mexican, and U.S. rule dropped from ~300,000 prior to 1769 to ~16,000 in 1900. It would later recover to about ~80,000 in the 1970s.