CA ERQs Flashcards
1
Q
Evalluate one theory relevant to: Reconstructive memory
Introduce+ discuss reconstructive memory
A
- Theory of mental recall proposed by Bartlett
- Our memories are not like fotographs, they are constantly rebuilt.
- Remembering a past event is infuelnced by leading words, (questions that are suggestive in some way), misleading information (when facts are added which may not be true)
- The misinformation effect: explains when someone is provided with wrongful information, altering their memories.
- Our memories are filtered out by our schemas each time we remember something.
*
2
Q
Reconstructive memory
Study 1
A
- proposed by Loftus and Palmer
- Aim: Investigate the influence of leading words on eye mean estimation speed.
- IV: The different leading words (smash, collided, hit, contracted) to make reference to the crash.
- DV: A memoery which was measured by mean estimation speed of participants
- Participants were given 7 short films to watch
- asked to fill a questionaire that cocnisted in them estiamting the speed of the crash.
- Had a critical question –>asked same question but the verb changed ‘‘How fast were the cars going when they… each other’’
- Results: Participants had a higher estimation of 40.8 with the highest intensity verb (smahed), while a lower estimation when the word was contracted (31.8).
- Link—-> each verb activated different mental schemas.
3
Q
Evaluation of study 1
A
- low ecological validity–> it was not a real crash (less emotional impact)
- precise control of variables–> used same video, age in order to identify a relationship.
4
Q
Study 2:Yulli and Cutshall
A
- aim: investigate if leading questions would affect eyewitness of a real crime
- done under natural conditions
- procedure: In a gun shop in vancouver a thief tied the owner before stealing guns. Owner escaped, thief shot him twice, then he was killed.
- 4-5 months later, 13 participants agreed to take part on experiment
- asked to recall event +were asked questions.
- 2 leading Q—>if they recalled a broken headlight in geatway car, 2) yelloe panel on car (which was blue)
- asked about their stress levels
- Results: eyewitness were a reliable sourced as they were not affected by the misninformation effect.
- most participants aswred that there was no broken headlight, and that panel was blue.
5
Q
Evaluation of study 2
A
- high ecological validity–> naturalistic setting
- in depth anaalysis (quantitative data)
- low reliaiblity–Z cant be replicated.
6
Q
Applicability
A
- See extent that legal system relied on eyewitnesses
- applicable to legal system because eyewitnesses can give out false memories in court
- ensure of what they saw–> inclined to follow leading Q.
- In legal reprots police should not only focus on eyewitness (DNA, videos etc)
7
Q
Evaluation of theory
A
- S–> many studies clearly show that our memories are reconstructed.–Z also falsified by Yulli and Cutshall.
- S–> theory is highly applicable
- L—> does not consider the role of emotions
- L–> in some cases people do have relaible memories.
8
Q
SCHEMA THEORY
introduce mental schemas
A
- explains how we organise information in order to make sense of the world.
- mental representation that helps individuals arrange ideas, expectations based on past events.
- we process information by basing it on past knowlege and experiences.
9
Q
Describe mental schemas
A
- infleunces how individuals make sense of the world
- Types of schema: Script, self, social
- Script schemas–> how individuals behave in order to fit their cultures.
- Social schemas—> how we interpret others behaviours in different scenarious
- Self–> how we perceive ourselves
- when information gets filtered by schemas there are processses happening\
- Assimilation–> words are replaced with words with similar meaning to fit our schemas.
- Levelling–> removing information that does not make sense.
- Sharpening–> info being added to make sense.
10
Q
Describe study 1
A
- investigate if recalling a native american story would affect the details that participants would recall.
- IV: time that passed until they were told to recall the information.
- DV: details recalled.
- participants–> english males
- asked to read the native american story ‘‘war of ghosts’’
- one person read it and recalled it aftter and relied on another person to recall the information.
- After 2 weeks results showed that the story was sharpening–> adding information. Also, assimilation as they changed the menaing od words (ie canoe–> boat). Also, levelling, where particiants removed information.
11
Q
Evaluation study 1
A
- low ecological validity–> artificial to memorize a story
- no stamdarized instriction–> performed in the 1930s(was not controlled)
12
Q
Describe study 2
A
- performed by BREWER AND TREYES ‘‘The picnic basket’’
- aim: investigate if the steryotipical schema of an office would affect memory recall.
- participants–> uni students
- left in office for 30s, taken to experimental room where they were asked to recall as many details they could remember of the office.
- Results–> some recalled objects that were not there (eg stapler)–> connected it to an office, other did not recall some objects there (eg picnic basket)
13
Q
Evaluation of study 2
A
- sample bias
- ethical concerns–> deception
14
Q
Applicability
A
- DEPRESSION:
- BECK—> negative triad negattive thoughts about themselves, future and world
- influenced by negative self schemas–> cognitive biases
- peole are easily trapped in neg thoughts as ifnromation is filtered out by depression.
- STERYOTYPES:
- tend to categorize people based on similar chacrertics (social categorisation)
- we make generalizations about people in order to reduce cognitive demand.
- role of schemas on sterytpes is seen in gender roles—> attenied prevous knowledge about what is considered ‘‘appropiate for each gender.
15
Q
SCHEMA THEORY
Limitations
A
- unclear how schemas are acquired
- theory is very abstract and braod
- reductionsist in relation to depression–> schemas are not enough to explain why people have depression as other factors play a role (eg biological).
16
Q
Contrast two models of memory
Intro
A
- define memory: process of encoding (sensory info into memory), storing (consolidating encoded info into memory), retrieving (bringing memoris back to conciousness).
- TWO main models:
- multi-store model of memory (MSM)–> proposed by Atkinson and Shriflinn
- working memeory model (WMM)–> propsoed by Baddley and Hitch
17
Q
Argument 1: Subsystems
A
- MSM–> assumes that memory has three separate stores that work uniformly in a single way and does NOT assume the presence of subsystems.
- WMM–> does consider the existance of subsystems in regards to the STM.
- Central executive–> in charge in the operations of the slave systems, order systems to focus on a single task or switch between them.
- Phonological loop–> auditory store and it is divided into two. (1) Phonological store–> retains info in speech-based form.
- (2) articulatory rehearsal component that converts visual stimuli to sound.
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad–> processes visual and spatial info for navigation.
18
Q
Study 1: Subsystems
A
- proposed by shallice and warrrington.
- case study of KF
- man that lost his parietal occipital lobe because of a motorcycle accident.
- asked him to recall a list of words (he was unble to do so)
- asked to recall pictures (he was able to do so)
- struggled to transfer verbal info from STM but visual not.
- study suggested the existance of the different subsytems (1) phonological loop and 2) visuo spatial sketchpad.
- Part of brain with PL was affected while other part was not.
- propsoes existance of two different substems
19
Q
Argument 2: Multitasking
A
- According to the WMM–> if two tasks are performed using the same subsystem, they will not be correctyly performed due to information overload.
- if distinct components are used it may be succesfull
- MSM–> does not establish multitasking as it fails to explain how info gets processed in each store.
20
Q
Study 2: Multitasking
A
- proposed by Strayer and Jhonson
- aim: study inattention blindness while driving
- had to multitask while being in a computer simulation of traffic
- they recorded participants reaction time to unexpected events
- group 1–> listen to a book or radio tape
- grooup 2–> cell phone convo
Results: listening to radio did not affect participants reaction. - Cell phone convo decreases their reaction time.
- 1st group could multitask while the 2nd group had an overlaod of info. (much difficult to multitask)
21
Q
Applicability: multitasking
A
- runnning and talkign you can do them at the same time becasue they require two seprate subsystems
- when studying and listenign tyo msuic this is much diffucult as you use the same slave system (overlaod of info).
22
Q
Argument 3: Information displacement
A
- improtance of reheresal and how info gets lost between each store
- model proposes that sensory-memory store retains info for 4s and has unlimited capacity. Information may be forgotten if it is not rehersad and does not arrive to stm.
- STM: has a duration of 30s but without rehersal information is forgotten. LTM has unlimited capacity and stores information for a lifetime but info must be rehresed to provent displacement.
- WMM–> does not propose hoe information gets lost because it focuses on what happens in each subsystem.
23
Q
Study 3: Info displacement
A
- propsoed by Glanzer and Cunitz
- aim: investigate if position of words alters recall
- participants: US army males
- presented with a list of 15 words which they had to recall
- three experimental condition
1. Inmediate recall
2. 10s delay (distraction task)
3. 30s delay (distraction task) - had to count from 100-0 bakwards.
- results: In IR they remebered more the first and last words (primacy recency effect), first words entered LTM and last words were in STM.
- In distraction task they remebred less words.
- Shows how words were dispalced as they were not rehreased.
24
Q
Reserach methods to study one cognitive process:
Introduce research methods +cogntive process:
A
- RM–> study how humans process and understand info.
- Cognitive process–> memory: complex process of encoding storign and retriving
- RM–> Experiments +questionaires
25
Q
Describe experiments
A
- quantitative data
- cause and effect relationship
- IV: Independent variable
- DV: Dependent variable
- variables must be operazionalized
- Null hypothesis. no significant relationship between variables
- Alternative hypothesis: significant relationship.
- Control extraneous variables: they affect the internal validity (degree that IV is the only factor affecting the DV)
- to control this they allocate participants to random conditions.
26
Q
Study 1 (Experiements)
A
- proposed by Loftus and palmer
- aim: find out whether leading words affect mean estimation speed.
- participants: watch seven short films
- asked fill out questioanire with questions including leading words.
- Ranged in intensity (smash, collided bumped bit, contracted).
- verb smashed was the highest in mean estimation speed while contracted was the lowest. Clear cause-effect relationshipn between variables.
27
Q
Study in relation to RM:
A
- IV: Intensity of verb
- DV: mean estimation speed
- allowed them to identify a cause-effect relationship.
- finding supported the idea that each verb activates a different schema.
28
Q
Strenghs and Limitations
A
Strenghs:
* control variables–> laboratory setting, randomlly assigned to conditions
* reduction of selection bias by preventing favoritism to other groups.
* controlled order effect as they counterbalanced order of the presentations of the films. –> enhanced internal validity.
Limitations:
* artificial setting reduces external validity–> cant be applied to real-life contexts
* lacks realism as they cant be applied to life scenarious because people do not rate crashes on a daily basis.
29
Q
RM–> Questioanaires
A
- structured questions
- designed to collect qualitative data about thoughts, behaviours and attitudes of individuals.
- large sample and have standarized questions.
- identify trends rather than statistical significance.
- anonymity+confidentuality.
30
Q
study 2: Questionaires
A
Brown and Kulik
31
Q
Strenghs and limitations (questioanires)
A
Strenghs:
* influence of naturally.ocurring events and random life events can be investigated which could not be achieved from an experiment.
* data collected is more profound –> provides a transparaent insight into the functions of memory.
Limitations:
* present social desiribility bias
* retrospective data: answers could be exaggerated or made up.
* Correlational relationships are weaker because extraneous variables are not controlled
32
Q
Discuss one or more biases in thinking and decision making
Introduction
A
Explain thinking +decision making:
* explains wayin which our brain processes information to make sense of the world
* dual processing model–> proposes existance of two systems
(1) system 1–> intuativem fast and automatic
(2) system 2–> is a slow, non-concious qay of thinking
- system 1–> as it is very automatic it is prone to cognitive biases.
- cognitive biases–> heuristics
- cogntive shortcuts to make effective judgements with minimal effort.
- Types of heuristics: Anchoring bias and framing effect
33
Q
Describe anchoring bias +framing effects
A
ANCHORING BIAS
* individual relies on first piece of info to make decision.–> known as ´ánchor´´
* all judgements and decisions are based on that anchor, neglecting rest of info.
* Creates biases when interpreting information.
FRAMING EFFECT
* when an individual reacts to information based on how the information is presented.
* people prefer information that is positively framed, but prefer less when it is negatuvely framed
34
Q
STUDY 1–> anchoring bias
A
- proposed by Traverskky and Khanemann
- aim–> investigate impact of the order of numbers on the estimation given in a multiplication.
- participants–> high school students
- givewn multiplcation task and where seperated into two groups
- ascending condition–> 1x2x3x4x5x6x7xc8
- descending condition–> 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1
- told to estimate the mutiplication
- results–> participants overstimated in the descending condition and underesteimated in ascending.
- shows how first piece of info acts as an anchor–> in this case the first multiplication number.
35
Q
Evaluation study 1
A
- high internal validity
- low ecological validity–> not a commo situation.
36
Q
Study 2: Framing effect
A
- TRAVERSKY AND KHANEMAN
- aim: influence of + and - frames on decision making
- párticipants–> undergraduate students
- given hypothetical situation of deadly virus outbreak, estimated to kill 600 people.
- choose between two options–> positive and negative frame
posotive frame–> A. 200 people will be saved B. 1/3 prob that 600 people are saved
begative frame–> A. C. 400 people will die, D. 1/3 not die and 2/3 die-
Results–> in positive frame more people chose A than B and in negative frame more people chose D than C.
* people prefer positively framed information.
37
Q
Applicability
A
- ANCHORING BIAS:medical field and diagnosis–> doctors are soemtimes ingleinced by the first symtoms encountered by patient and less on subsequent symtoms–> doctores may rely too much on first piece of info –>dangerous to patients
- FRAMING EFFECT: mrketing +sales: brands trick people by psotively framign their products. eg 20% sugar and 80% sugar free.
38
Q
Heuristics limitations
A
- overly reductionsist–> does not specifiy how they interact
- does not explain the role of emotions
- definitoos of system 1 and 2 are not always certian–> there are not 2 systems in the brain.
39
Q
Evaluate one study or theory related to thinking and decision making
Introduction
A
- how our brain processes information to make sense of the world
- model–> dual processing model
- proposed by Traversky and Khanemann.
- based on idia that our way of thinkign is divided in two systems
1. System 1–> automatic, intuative and effortless way of thinking, low cognitive energy
2. system 2–>slow, rational and a more concious way of thinking, and required more effort as it is used to make improtant decisions. - both systems are required
40
Q
Study 1
A
- propsoed by ALTER AND OPPENHEIMER
- aim: investigate if the font used would affectr participants disfluency when doing cognitive reasoning tests.
- participants–> undergraduate students and were divided into 2 groups.
1 group–> easy to read font
2. group–> difficult to read font - both groups were given same questions
- results–> students that got the difficult to read font had more correct answers comapred to those with easy to read font.
- in the difficult to read font participants used more system 2.
41
Q
study 1: evaluation
A
- high ecological validity–> applied in many contexts in our lives.
- high internal validity–>
- sample is not representative
42
Q
Study 2
A
- wason task
- aim: see if participants would use their first instinct when asked to solve task
- task–> set of cards some were odd/even or red/brown
- asked which had needed to be turned first so taht card shows even number on one face and opossite face is red.
- asked to turn card
- results–> most ansers had initial instinct to turn red card to check for even number
- answer–> only the even number (not implied that red is always even)
- link–> show how individuals are influenced with content of info provided–> used system 1 as they relied on a fast answer.
43
Q
Applicability
A
- applied to any situation
- system 1–> used to make day to day decisions: for exampel what clothes to wear, brushign teeth etc,
- system 2–> mor eintuative and more improtasnt decisions such as selecting a university.
44
Q
Evaluation:
A
S–> supported by evidence
L–> reductionsist does not specifit how models interact and the role of emotion.
45
Q
To what extent does emotion affect cognition:
Intro
A
- memory–> process of encoding,storing and retreiving information.
- vivid, long-lasting memories, that come from emotional and surprising events which are from high importance for an individual.
- maintained by overt rehearsal–> discussing with others and covert rehresal which is based on private rehresao.
- FB can recall specific events such as places, events, who was affected and aftermath.
- more resistant +accurate than everyday memories.
46
Q
Study 1: Brown and Kulik
A
- aim–> find whether surprising/significant events cause FB memories.
- participants–> 40 african americans +40 white americans
- iv: different personally signficant event–> murder of JFK +Martin luther king
- given questioanires which had very specific questions regarding the events
- asked about death of a loved one
- results–> most participants recalled more detah of a loved one. AM recswlled more martin luther king. CA: recalled more JFK.
47
Q
Study 2
A
- Sharot et al
- aim: role of biological factors on FM
- after 3 yrs of 9/11 attack participamnts who were in new york where asked to retrive memories when palced in fmri.
- given word cue while in fmri: included words (summer and september)
- then they rated their memories +wrote desceription.
- those that recalled more FM were closer to the world tarde center.
- they had a higher activation in their amygdala when exposed to word september.
- amydala activation correlated with FM.
48
Q
applicability
A
- when people pass through traumatic events they are more likely to remember them than ordinary memories.
- eg school shooting or natural disaster
- may be used as relaible source in police investigations.
49
Q
Limitations
A
- FBM may not be accuarte as people may rehrase story to friends/family–> distorting the memory.
- as time passes memory becomees distorted.
- EE–> Neisser +Harsch: invesigated accuracy of FBM.
- givrn Q about a disasters that hapened 24 hrs ago, 2nd one 3 years ago. There memories had been distorted.
- shows how FBM change thriugh time.
