C6 - Vineyard Management - Micky - completed Flashcards
What are the three main considerations a producer may need to make when choosing a site?
- Environmental conditions
- Business considerations
- Grape variety
Which environmental conditions does a producer have to consider? And what will be influenced by these factors?
- Average temperature
- Rainfall
- Sunlight hours
- Fertility and drainage of the soil
These will influence the choice of:
- grape variety
- the ideal planting density
- systems of training and trellising.
What business (financial) considerations must be made by a producer when selecting a vineyard site?
- Proximity to utility infrastructure: power, water…etc.
- Availability of a vineyard workforce
- Accessibility for machinery
- Cost of land
What must a producer consider regarding grape variety when selecting a site?
- It must suit climatic conditions
- Demand
- Legal restrictions (GI, AC… etc.)
How is a new vineyard prepared?
Existing vegetation is cleared
- Fertility tested (and corrected with fertiliser if necessary)
- Young vines are planted by hand or machine
- Vines protected from animals with plastic sleeves
- Irrigation is sometimes allowed to help young vines establish themselves
Why is irrigation allowed in some places, even in regions where it is otherwise prohibited, after new vines have been planted?
To allow the vines to establish themselves
When does a vine’s first yield usually come?
In the third year after planting
At what age on average are vines usually replaced?
30 - 50 years
What is the main factor that makes old vines desirable?
They give a greater concentration of flavours
What are the potential disadvantages to growing an old vine?
- Lower yield
- Susceptibility to disease
For how long is a vineyard typically left fallow for recover after the vines are dug up?
Three or more years
What are the four main techniques used to manage the vine?
- Training
- Pruning
- Trellising
- Planting density
The grower will adapt the four main vineyard management techniques to suit the availability of these resources:
- Temperature
- Sunlight
- Water
- Soil nutrients
Name a practical consideration a grower may have to make when establishing a vineyard
Use of machinery
What is the ultimate goal of a grape grower?
To maximise the production of fruit at the desired quality level as economically as possible
What is vine training?
The shape of the permanent wood of the vine
What are the two principal categories of vine training?
- Head training
- Cordon training
Both head training and cordon training can be _____ to benefit from heat retained by the soil or_____ to avoid frosts
- Low trained
- High trained
Describe a head-trained vine
- They have relatively little permanent wood
- Some only have a trunk
- Some have a few short arms of permanent wood growing from the top of the trunk
- They can either be spur-pruned or replacement cane pruned
Describe a vine which is cordon trained
A trunk with one or more permanent HORIZONTAL arms (cordons)
Usually spur pruned
Describe a positive and negative effect of cordon training a vine
The sturdy permanent cordon with shoots positioned along its length, makes mechanisation easier
It can take longer to establish because of the greater amount of permanent wood
Cordon training can also be used to create…
big vine structures e.g. four or more cordons.
What is pruning?
The removal of unwanted leaves, canes and permanent wood
What is the purpose of pruning?
It shapes the vine and limits its size
When does pruning typically take place?
Every winter and summer
What is the main purpose of winter pruning?
To determine the number and location of buds that will form shoots in the coming season
What can help to ensure that buds are not too close together?
canopy management
What are the two styles of winter pruning?
- Spur pruning
- Replacement cane pruning
Describe spur pruning
- short sections of one-year-old wood that have been cut down to 2-3 buds.
- the spurs are either distributed along a cordon (cordon training) or around the top of the trunk (head training)
Describe replacement cane pruning
- canes are longer sections of one-year-old wood, have anything from 8 to 20 buds
- Typically one or two canes are retained
- Each cane is tied horizontally to the trellis for support
- Most common on head-trained vines
What are the two main disadvantages of replacement cane pruning?
It requires a large, skilled workforce to choose suitable canes and train them
It is more complex than spur pruning
What is the alternative name for “replacement cane pruning”?
Guyot training
What does summer pruning involve?
- Trimming the canopy to restrict vegetative growth and direct sugar production to the grape
- It can involve leaf stripping so that bunches of grapes have optimal exposure to sunshine
What is a vine’s ‘canopy’?
it’s made up of all the green parts of the vine
What is a grower’s most important concern when considering canopy management?
Whether or not to use trellis
What is a trellis?
A permanent structure of stakes and wires, used to support any replacement canes and the vine’s annual growth
What is a bush vine?
The vines do not have a trellis system and the shoots can hang down as far as the ground
typically head-trained and spur pruned
What kind of climate is a bush-trained vine most suited to? Give two examples…
- Warm/hot, dry, sunny
- Southern Rhône & Barossa Valley
Why is bush-training best suited to a hot, sunny environment?
The extra shade helps to protect the grapes
Why is bush-training unsuitable for cool or wet regions?
- The shade can impede grape ripening
- Lack of airflow can promote disease
Describe vines in Beaujolais
- They are head-trained and spur-pruned
- The shoots are tied together at the tips, helping to expose bunches to air and sunlight
What kind of vines are not suitable for mechanical harvesting?
Untrellised
Give another name for bush-training
gobelet
Describe the two main aspects of trellised vineyards. And what is their collective term?
Each row of vines requires a line of posts joined by horizontal wires.
Canes and shoots are tied to the trellis.
Together, this is known as “canopy management”
What are the three important reasons for canopy
management?
- To control the amount of sunlight that gets to the canopy
- To improve air circulation
- To aid mechanisation
How does trellising aid mechanisation?
It separates leaves from grapes
What is the secondary benefit of separating leaves and fruit?
Spraying of insecticides and fungicides is more effective
What is the most widely used trellising system?
Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP)
Which pruning system can VSP be used with?
Either replacement cane or spur-pruned
Describe VSP
Shoots are trained vertically and tied in place onto the trellis forming a single narrow canopy
How can VSP be adapted in hot, sunny regions?
Rather than tying the top of the shoots, allowing them to flop over, providing some shade for the fruit
Why might a grape grower choose adapted VSP over bush vine training?
It allows for mechanisation
How is planting density measured?
It is the number of vines planted in a given area
What is a hectare?
An area enclosed by a square with 100m sides
What is the rough range of planting densities?
1,000 - 10,000 vines per hectare
How does an acre relate to a hectare?
One acre is approximately 0.4 hectares
Name a very important set of criteria when deciding on planting density
Availability of nutrients and water
Explain the most advantageous planting density considerations for areas with limited water availability
Low planting density allows each vine’s roots to take up water from a larger volume of soil without any competition
Explain the effect on a vine of having low levels of nutrients but sufficient water?
It can still grow vigorously and produce lots of vegetative growth in preference to fruit
In a situation where a vine has plenty of rainfall/water, what may a grower do to reduce vigour?
Plant at high density to provide competition for resources among roots
With combination of what make it easier to maintain an open canopy
- Planting density
- Pruning
What is the problem for a winemaker when there is ample rainfall and very fertile soils?
- Vines can be overly vigorous
- Pruning and planting density are often not enough
What is yield?
A measure of the amount of grapes produced
In what units may yield be measured?
Weight: i.e. tonnes of grapes/hectare
Volume: i.e. hectoliters of wine/hectare
What are the three principal reasons why a winemaker may need to know yield?
- Legal requirements
- Contractual obligations
- Predicting tank space
How may yield be approximately predicted?
By observing the number of buds left on a vine after winter pruning
Which factors make predicting yield after winder pruning difficult/inaccurate?
- Frost damage
- Poor fruit set
- Pests and diseases
How may yields be reduced by the winemaker?
By removing immature grapes shortly after véraison
What is the process of removing immature grapes after véraison called?
Green harvesting
Why must green harvesting be carefully timed?
If done at the wrong time, the vine will compensate for the loss by increasing the size of the grapes that have been retained.
Cannot return the yield to the original size but also dilute the flavours in the remaining.
What effect does yield have on grape quality?
No solid link between quality and yield.
What are the broad potential effects of pests and diseases?
- Reduced yield
- Reduced fruit quality
What effect does leaf-damage have on a vine?
It reduces photosynthesis and consequently limits the vine’s ripening ability
What are nematodes?
Microscopic worms that attack the roots of the vine, interfering with water and nutrient uptake
What is the other effect a nematode can have other than interfering with nutrient/water uptake?
Transmitting vine viruses
What is the best treatment for nematodes?
Prevention
What are the two biggest problems when it comes to birds and mammals?
- They can eat large numbers of grapes
- Half eaten/crushed grapes are more susceptible to fungal disease
How are birds and mammals deterred?
Nets and fences
What do insects do to a vine?
Feed on grapes and leaves
How is the problem of insects treated?
With insecticide sprays or integrated pest management
What kind of environment do downy and powdery mildew thrive in?
Warm, humid environments
Which parts of the vine can downy and powdery mildew attack?
All green parts, including the leaves and grapes
What effect does it have on a wine if attacked by mildew?
- Grapes lose their fruity flavour
- The wine develops a mouldy, bitter taint
What is grey rot caused by?
The fungus Botrytis Cinerea
In what conditions does grey rot thrive?
Damp conditions
Which part of the vine does grey rot attack?
Grapes
What effect can grey rot have on black grapes?
They can lose their colour
What is noble rot?
The name for grey rot when it has been used for making sweet wines by infecting certain white grape varieties.
How was powdery mildew traditionally treated?
With a sulphur-based spray
How was downy mildew traditionally treated?
With Bordeaux Mixture - a copper based spray
How is spraying most commonly done?
By tractor
Why must spraying stop close to harvest?
So that there are no harmful chemical residues in the wine
Other than spraying, how may the risk of fungal diseases developing be reduced?
Using appropriate canopy management
Explain how canopy management may reduce the chance of fungal disease
An open vine canopy allows greater flow of air, promoting evaporation and keeping it dry
What’s the big advantage of preventing fungal disease with only canopy management?
It’s financially and environmentally beneficial, as sprays are not needed
What do viruses do to a vine?
Most do not kill the vine but reduce its ability to function
How do viruses affect yield?
They can dramatically reduce yield and quality
How are viruses usually spread among vines?
Via cutting or nematodes
What treatments are there for vine viruses?
None
How can viruses be eradicated?
By digging up vines and sanitising the land
How do bacterial diseases affect vines?
Many just reduce grape quality and quantity, but some can kill the vines
Typically, how are bacterial diseases usually spread?
By small insects called sharpshooters
How may bacterial diseases be treated or cured?
They can’t
How can bacterial diseases be prevented?
Strict quarantine procedures and interrupting the lifecycle of the sharpshooters
How may bacterial diseases be eradicated?
Digging up vines and sanitising the land
What viticultural practice took off to control pests and diseases in the second half of the twentieth century?
- The use of man made sprays/chemicals to control pests and diseases
- An increased use of chemical fertilisers
Why has chemical spraying become a concern?
It damages the environment
What are the three main options available to those wanting to reduce chemical spraying?
- Sustainable agriculture
- Organic agriculture
- Biodynamic agriculture
Are man-made chemicals prohibited in sustainable agriculture?
No, but their use is restricted.
Fundamentally, what is sustainable agriculture?
Growers are encouraged to pay closer attention to pest lifecycles and weather, in order to prevent diseases and outbreak before it occurs
What is a key part of sustainable agriculture when related specifically to pests?
integrated pest management (IPM)
How may pest populations be controlled during IPM?
By encouraging the predators of certain pests to live in the vineyard
What is organic agriculture?
Similar to sustainable agriculture, but with only a limited number of the more traditional treatments against pests and diseases and in smaller quantities
It is a set of accredited practices
Why is organic agriculture inconsistent?
Certification bodies vary with regard to standards
What is the one main rule all organic vineyards must follow to be accredited?
They need to undergo a period of conversion before they can be certified
Who founded Biodynamic Agriculture?
Rudolf Steiner and Maria Thun
What broadly, is biodynamic agriculture?
- It adopts organic practices but also incorporates philosophy and cosmology
- Vineyard soil is seen as part of a connected system with Earth, the air and other planets
- Practitioners adapt growing practices to coincide with cosmic cycles
In biodynamic agriculture, what is used as fertiliser, disease treatment and pest deterrent?
A homeopathic remedies called “preparations”
How does a vineyard officially become biodynamic?
By being certified
When does “budburst” occur in the northern and Southern Hemispheres?
March - April
September - October
When does “early shoot and leaf growth” occur in the northern and Southern Hemispheres?
March - May
September - November
Where does “flowering and fruit set” occur in the northern and Southern Hemispheres?
May - June
November - December
When does “Véraison and berry ripening” occur in the northern and Southern Hemispheres?
July - September
January - March
When does “harvest” occur in the northern and Southern Hemispheres?
September - October
March - April
When is “winter dormancy” in the northern and Southern Hemispheres?
December - March
July - September
At what mean daily temperature does budburst generally begin?
exceeds 10C
The temperature at which budburst occurs depends on the …
Grape variety
Name two varieties which bud at relatively low temperatures. Give another name for this…
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir
Early-budding varieties
Name one variety which buds at relatively low temperatures. Give another name for this…
Cabernet Sauvignon
A late-budding variety
What is the biggest risk to budburst?
Spring frosts
What agricultural practice begins at budburst?
Spraying
Describe what happens during ‘early shoot and leaf growth’? How is energy provided for this?
- Shoots grow rapidly until the vine flowers
- Initially fuelled by stored carbohydrate reserves
- Energy provided partially by leaves as they grow and begin to photosynthesise
When are water and nutrients most important during a plant’s lifecycle?
Early shoot and leaf growth
If practiced, when does shoot-tying take place?
During early shoot and leaf growth
What does the vine most need during flowering? Why?
- Warm temperatures
- Plenty of sunshine
- Little or no rain, otherwise pollination may be disrupted, reducing fruit-set
What is fruit set? What else occurs?
- When a flower develops into a grape
- Unpollinated flowers drop off
What is it called when more flowers than normal fail to fertilise?
Coulure
What is Millerandage?
When grapes form without seeds and remain small
What is the outcome of Coulure or Millerandage?
Reduced yields
What is generally the cause of Millerandage and Coulure?
Cold, cloudy or rainy weather during pollination
How long do grapes grow before veraison?
6 - 8 weeks
What is véraison? Describe it
- The point at which grapes begin to ripen
- Skin changes colour
What occurs between Véraison and ripening?
- Grapes swell and fill with water
- Sugar levels rise, acid levels drop
- Colour pigments and flavour compounds accumulate
- Tannins develop
What conditions are ideal for ripening?
- Warm and sunny conditions
- Mild water stress to inhibit shoot growth and encourage grape ripening
What processes may happen during berry ripening? What is the purpose?
- Summer pruning
- Green harvesting
- Summer pruning removes excess foliage, ensuring the canopy remains open
- Green harvesting controls yield and improves fruit quality
What conditions are ideal for harvest? Why?
- Dry
- Excess rainfall before harvest can cause the grapes to swell, diluting flavour
- Chances of rot are increased too
When must spraying finish?
A reasonable time before harvest to ensure there are no harmful residues in the wine
What happens naturally during winter dormancy?
- Shoots become woody (canes)
- Leaves fall
- The vine stores carbohydrates in its roots
What effect can winter freeze have on a vine?
- Buds can die
- The vine can die
How may a vine be protected from winter freeze?
By piling earth up around the vine
What may a grape grower do during winter dormancy?
Winter pruning
What happens to the colours of black and white grapes during Véraison?
- Black grapes turn red, then purple
- White grapes turn translucent and golden
What happens within grapes during ripening?
Sugar levels rise and acid levels drop
How is the ripening process in a grape tracked?
Monitoring the rise in sugar levels
What else may happen within a grape as acid levels drop and sugar levels rise?
- The grapes will develop their signature flavours
- Tannins in the grape skins become less bitter and astringent
What dictates when the ideal balance of sugar, acid, flavour and tannin is reached in a grape?
- Grape variety
- Climate
- Style/quality of wine being produced
When does harvest ideally begin?
When the grape grower and/or the winemaker believes the grapes have the exact qualities needed to create the desired style of wine
What may cause a winemaker to bring the harvest forward?
Poor weather conditions
What does hail do to crops?
Destroys them
What can rain do to crops?
Cause the grapes to swell excessively and dilute the juice
Why do winemakers need to coordinate the arrival of fruit at the winery?
To make sure it is not suddenly overwhelmed with fruit it does not have the capacity to process
How is harvesting done?
By hand or machine
Name the main factors which dictate how a vineyard should be harvested
- How the vineyard is planted
- Labour availability and cost
- Vineyard topography
- Weather conditions
- Winemaking choices
Is premium wine can only be made by grapes harvested by hand?
No, it can be by machine or hand harvest
How do machine harvesters work?
By shaking the trunk of the vine and collecting the ripe berries as they fall off, leaving the stalks behind
What are the major disadvantages/difficulties of machine harvesting?
- They are not selective, often collecting unhealthy, damaged and unripe grapes, as well as bits of leaf, insects and other contaminants
- They can only be used on flat or gently sloping land
- They are best suited to varieties whose grapes are not easily damaged and come away easily from their stems
- They cannot be used for wines whose grapes need to be picked in whole bunches
What is MOG?
“Matter Other than Grapes” - unwanted contaminants collected often by machines during harvest
How are MOG dealt with during harvest?
They can be removed at the winery during sorting
Why it’s not always possible to sort out MOG at the winery?
Some harvesting operations are too large
What is arguably the biggest advantage of machine harvesting?
Speed
Give two reasons as to why speed is such a big benefit when it comes to machine-harvesting
- The vintage may be threatened by bad weather
- Some varieties may become overripe very quickly e.g. Sauvignon Blanc
Why might it be beneficial that machines can work overnight? Explain your answer
Grapes can be brought back to the winery when they are still cool, If they are cool, money is saved on cooling them before fermentation.
It slows down the process of oxidation
Name two wines whose grapes need to be picked in whole bunches
- Champagne
- Beaujolais
Describe hand harvesting
It involves pickers cutting off individual bunches of grapes with secateurs
List the three main disadvantages of hand harvesting
- slower
- more labour-intensive
- more expensive
What is the biggest advantage of hand-harvesting?
It allows grape selection to take place in the vineyard
For which wines is hand-harvesting essential? Why?
- Those requiring grapes affected by noble rot
- Onset and level of rot can vary between bunches
- Less damage occurs
- Grapes can be further protected from damage by transporting them in shallow, stackable trays
Unlike machine harvesting, the…are retained
Stems
Why is it good that hand harvesting allows stems to be retained
- Whole, intact bunches can produce a very clean, pure juice when pressed during white winemaking
- It is essential for whole-bunch fermentations in red winemaking
Give three examples of places where machine harvesting is not possible. Give the reason
- Douro
- Mosel
- Northern Rhône
In low nutrients, sufficient water - Why ensuring the correct number of buds after winter pruning is important
balance the number of buds and energy stored (carbohydrates)
What are the advantages of maintaining a well managed open canopy?
fruit quality and disease control
Where commonly uses high planting density.
Europe
In areas with high level of nutrients and rainfall, while high planting density is not sufficient, what else can grower do to limit the growth of the vines?
- low-density planting using multiple cordons or canes, which often produce good quality grapes at high yield.
How to achieve vineyard biodiversity and it’s benefit
- encourage predators of certain pests to live in the vineyard
- supporting a range of plants rather than a monoculture of vines
- those predators provide nutrients for vines when mowed and ploughed into the soil.
What common way to track the grapes ripening process?
monitoring the sugar level
Benefit of low-trained
vine benefits from heat retained by soil
Benefit of high-trained
avoid frosts
What is the simple goal of a grape grower?
to produce a healthy crop of ripe grapes suitable for the style of wine the winemaker wants to make.
Why canopy management is particularly important in wet climates region?
an open canopy can improve air circulation through the leaves and grapes, this can avoid damp stagnant air to promote fungal disease.
Managing the combination of density and _____ correctly confers on fruit quality and disease control.
pruning
The vine stores energy in the form of ______ over winter.
carbohydrate
some vineyards in the __________, are on soils that offer the vines more nutrients than many of the classic European regions.
New World
What are the common pests to vine?
- phylloxera
- nematodes
- birds and mammals
- insects
What can be done to prevent nematodes?
- Sanitising the soil before replanting
- using resistant rootstocks
More sprayings are required in ________ climates, where there is high rainfall during the growing season
maritime
How are the black and white grapes looking and feeling before veraison?
green and hard.
What factors a grape grower needs to consider when determining the timing of harvest?
- quality of the grapes
- weather e.g. hail, rainfall
- capacity of the winery
“hard harvesting” also referred to as…..
hard picking
