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Biology > C3 Biological molecules > Flashcards

C3 Biological molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

what does carbohydrates contain

Carbohydrates

A

carbon hydrogen and oxygen

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2
Q

A. a single unit sugar is called a
…
B. an example is

Carbohydrates

A

A. monosaccharide
B. glucose, fructose & ribose

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3
Q

A. when two monosaccarides join together it is called a …
B. an example is

Carbohydrates

A

A. disaccharide
B. lactose and sucrose

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4
Q

A. when two or more monosaccharides join together its called a…..
B. an example is

Carbohydrates

A

A. polysaccharide
B. glycogen, cellulose and starch

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5
Q

what is the chemical formula of glucose

Carbohydrates

A

C6H12O6

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6
Q

what is a hexose monosaccaride

Carbohydrates

A

a monosaccaride composed of six carbons

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7
Q

what is the structural difference between alpha and beta glucose

Carbohydrates

A

the carbon hydroxyl group on c1 is in opposite positions

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8
Q

why is glucose polar

Carbohydrates

A

due to the hyddrogen bonds that form between the hydroxyl groups and water molecules

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9
Q

what happens to 2 alpha glucose molecules when they interact

Carbohydrates

A
  • the bonds are broken down and new ones are formed to form a new molecule
  • two hydrogen atoms and a oxygen are removed from the monomers to from water
  • a glycosidic bond forms between carbon 1 and 4
  • this is a condensation reaction
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10
Q

what is formed when many alpha glucose molecules are joined together by glycosidic bonds

Carbohydrates

A

starch

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11
Q

what are the two polysaccharide in starch

Carbohydrates

A
  • amylose
  • amylopectin
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12
Q

describe amylose

Carbohydrates

A
  • formed by alpha glucose molecules only joining by 1 and 4 glycocidic bonds
  • angle of the bond means that the long chain twists to form a helix
  • makes is compact and less soluble
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13
Q

describe amylopectin

Carbohydrates

A
  • made between 1 and 4 glycosidic bonds and also some 1 and 6
  • makes the structure branched
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14
Q

what is glycogen

Carbohydrates

A
  • functionally equivilent srorage molecule
  • highly branched - free ends where glucose molecules can be added or removed
  • more compact
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15
Q

how can glucose be used for respiration

Carbohydrates

A
  • starch undergoes hydrolysis reactions
  • requires water
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16
Q

how can beta glucose join together and what does it result in

Carbohydrates

A

if alternate beta glucose molecules are turned upside down and forms a straight chain called cellulose

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17
Q

what is the chemical test for carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

A

benedicts

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18
Q

what is a reducing sugar and give an example

Carbohydrates

A
  • a reducing sugar is a sugar which can donate electrons or reduce another molecule
  • monosaccharides and some diasaccharides (maltose and lactose)
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19
Q

what is the proccess for benedicts test

Carbohydrates

A
  1. place sample in to boiling tube (must be liquid or grinded)
  2. add equal volume of benedicts
  3. heat gently in a water bath for 5 minutes
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20
Q

what is the result for reducing sugars

Carbohydrates

A
  • react with copper ions
  • blue to brick red pricipitate
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21
Q

what is the proccess for non reducing sugars

Carbohydrates

A
  • after negative result
  • boil sample with hydrochloric acid
  • warm with benedicts in water bath for 5
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22
Q

why will a non reducing sugar give a positive result after being boiled in acid

Carbohydrates

A

because the sucrose has been hydrolysed to glucose and fructose

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23
Q

what is the test for starch

Carbohydrates

A

iodine

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24
Q

how do you carry out the starch test and what is the positive result

Carbohydrates

A
  • add few drops of iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution
  • mix with sample
  • yellow to black
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25
Q

what do lipids contain

lipids

A

carbon hydrogen and oxygen

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26
Q

why is lipids non polar

lipids

A

the bonds are more evenly distributed so there are no positive or negative areas

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27
Q

are lipids macro or micro molecules

lipids

A

macromolecule

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28
Q

what is a triglyceride

lipids

A

combination of one glycerol (alcohol) molecule and 3 fatty acids (carboxylic acid)

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29
Q

how does a triglyceride form

lipids

A
  • hydroxyl groups interact between fatty acids and glycerol
  • bond forms - ester
  • proccess is called esterifcation
30
Q

what makes a fatty acid saturated

lipids

A
  • no double bonds present between carbon atoms
31
Q

what makes a fatty acid unsaturated

lipids

A
  • double bonds between carbon atoms
  • causes the molecule to bend or kink
  • one double bond = monounsaturated
  • more than one double bond = polyunsaturated
32
Q

what is a phospholipid

lipids

A

modified triglyceride which contain a phosphate

33
Q

what makes up a phospholipid

lipids

A
  • two fatty acids
  • phosphate
34
Q

how do phospholipids interact with water

lipids

A
  • non polar tail which is hydrophobic
  • polar head which is hydrophillic
  • form a layer on the surface of water
  • called surfactants
  • can also form bilayers
35
Q

what are the roles of lipids

lipids

A
  • membrane formation
  • hormone formations
  • waterproofing
  • thermal insulation
  • bouyancy
36
Q

what is the test for lipids

lipids

A
  • emulsion test
37
Q

how do you carry out the emulsion test

lipids

A
  • sample is mixed with ethanol
  • solution is mixed with water and shaken
  • white emulsion forms as a layer on top of solution
38
Q

what is a peptide

proteins

A

polymers made up of amino acids

39
Q

what is a protein

proteins

A

one or more polypeptide arranged as a complex macromolecule with a specific biological function

40
Q

what makes up a protein

proteins

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen

41
Q

what makes up an amino acid

proteins

A
  • carboxyll group
  • amine group
  • hhydrogen
  • r group
42
Q

how do peptides form

proteins

A
  • amine and carboxylic connected to the central carbon react
  • hgydroxyl from carboxylic reacts with the hydrogen in the amine group to form water
  • peptide bond forms between the amino acids
43
Q

how do you seperate different amino acids

proteins

A

thin layer chromatography

44
Q

describe the proccess of thin layer chromatography

proteins

A
  1. wearing gloves draw pencil line 2cm from bottom only touching the edges
  2. 4 evenly spaced points marked on line
  3. amino acids solution spotted onto first dot, dried and reapplied.
  4. three other marks spotted with known amino acids
  5. plate then placed into jar containing solvent -> solvent 1cm deep and jar closed
  6. leave until solvent reaches 2cm away from the top and let dry
  7. plate sprayed with ninhydrdrin spray in fume cubboard. the amino acids react and the centre of the spot is remarked
45
Q

describe the primary structure of a protein

proteins

A
  • sequence in which amino acids join
  • directed by dna in nucleus
  • only peptide bonds
46
Q

describe the secondary structure of a protein

proteins

A
  • oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms in the repeating structure interact
  • hydrogen bonds may form within the chain forming a coil shape (alpha helix)
  • peptide chains may also lie parallel joined by hydrogen bonds. forms beta pleated sheet
47
Q

describe the tertiary structure of a protein

proteins

A
  • folding of protein into final shape
  • brings r groups of different amino acids closer so they interact and further fold

may form:
- hydrogen bonds
- ionic bonds
- disulfide bonds

48
Q

describe the quaternary structure of a protein

proteins

A
  • association of two or more individual protien subunits
  • interactions are the same as tertiary but between different proteins than within one
49
Q

what is the test for proteins

proteins

A

Biuret test

50
Q

Describe the Biuret test

proteins

A
  1. 3cm3 of liquid sample mixed with equal volume of 10% sodium hydroxide solution
  2. 1% copper sulfate solution added a few drops at a time until turned blue
  3. solution mixed and left for 5 minutes

(peptide bonds form violet coloured complexes with copper ions in alkaline soloutions)

51
Q

globular

types of proteins

A
  • compact, water soluble and roughly spherical
  • form when proteins fold into their tertiary structure in a way the hydrophillic r groups are on the outside of the protein
  • important as they are essential for regulating proccesses -> insulin
52
Q

Insulin

types of proteins

A
  • globular protein
  • hormone involved in regulation of glucose concentration
  • hormones transpoted in bloodstream so need to be soluble
53
Q

Conjugated Proteins

Types of Protein

A
  • globular proteins containing a non protein component- prosthetic group
54
Q

Haemoglobin

Types of Protein

A
  • conjugated protein
  • quaternary protein
  • four polypeptides- 2 alpha and 2 beta sub units
  • each sub-unit contiains a prosthetic haem group
  • the ions in haem group can combine reversibly with an O2 molecule
55
Q

Catalase

Types of Protein

A
  • enzyme
  • conjugated protein
  • quaternary protein
  • four haem prosthetic groups
  • presence of iron II ions allow interaction with hydrogen peroxide- speed up breakdown
56
Q

Fiberous Proteins

Types of Protein

A
  • long insoluble molecules
  • due to presence of high amino acids with hydrophobic R-groups in primary structure
  • sequence in primary structure is repetitive
  • organised structures
  • makes strong long molecules which are notfolded into 3D shapes like globular proteins
57
Q

keratin

Types of Protein

A
  • fiberous protein
  • present in hair, skin and nails
  • large proportion of sulfer conaining amino acid
  • results in lots of strong disulfide bonds
  • strong inflexible materials- determined by the amount of disulfide bonds
58
Q

Elastin

Types of Protein

A
  • fiberous proteins
  • found in the walls of blood vessels and alveoli
  • flexibility to expand and return
  • quaternary protein
  • made from many molecules of tropoelastin
59
Q

Collagen

Types of Protein

A
  • fiberous protein
  • conective tissue
  • found in skin, tendons, ligaments
  • made up of 3 polypetides wound together in a strong rope like stucture - triple helix
  • flexible
60
Q

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids

A
  • two types RNA & DNA
  • made up of C,H,O,N,P
  • large polymers made up of nucleotides linked in a chain
61
Q

Structure of Nucleotides

Nucleic Acids

A

Three components
- pentose monosacharride- 5 carbon atoms
- phosphate group (inorganic, acidic, - charge)
- nitrogenous base- complex organic molecule (contains 1 or 2 carbon rings and nitrogen)

62
Q

How are Nucleotides linked together

Nucleic Acids

A
  • condensation reaction
  • form a polymer called polynucleotide
  • phosphate group of the fith carbon forms covalent bond with the OH group at the third carbon on pentose sugar
  • these form phosphodiester bonds
  • strong sugar backbone with a base attached to each sugar
  • phosphodiester bonds are broken by hydrolysis reaction
63
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Nucleic Acids

A
  • deoxyribose- sugar with one fewer O2 atoms than ribose
  • Nucleotides in DNA each have one of 4 bases
64
Q

The two types of bases

Nucleic Acids

A
  • Prymidines: smaller with a singular carbon ring stucture
  • purines: larger with double carbon structures
65
Q

Pyrimidines

Nucleic Acids

A
  • thymie
  • cytosine
66
Q

Purines

Nucleic Acids

A
  • guanine
  • adenine
67
Q

The double helix

Nucleic Acids

A
  • two strands of polynucleotides coiled into a helix
  • two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases
  • each strand has a phosphate group at one end and a OH at the other
  • The two parrallel strands run in opposite directions- antiparallel
68
Q

Base pairing Rule

Nucleic Acids

A
  • A + T both able to form 2 hydrogen bonds so always join
  • G + C both able to form 3 hydrogen bonds so always join
  • complimentary base pairing
69
Q

Ribonucleuic acid (RNA)

Nucleic Acids

A
  • DNA is a very long moleucule and comprimises hundreds of genes so cant leave the nucleus.
  • A short section is transcribed into RNA (mRNA) molecule
  • Different to DNA as the pentose sugar is ribose not deoxyribose and the thymine base is replaced by uracil
  • form polymers by the formation of phosphodiester bonds
  • after use are degraded in the cytoplasm
70
Q

Semi- Conservative Replication

DNA Replication and the Genetic Code

A
  • for DNA to replicate the structure needs to unwind , the hydrogen bonds must be broken between the bases.
  • free DNA nucleotides will pair with their complimentary base pair.
  • the new nucleotides join to their adjacent ones with phosphodiester bonds
  • two new nucleotides are produced, each conataining one old strand- called semi-conservative as half is th same
71
Q

Roles of Enzymes

DNA Replication and the Genetic Code

A
  • the unwinding and sepration of strands is done by DNA Helicase
  • They catalyse reactions which break the hydrogen bonds
  • DNA Polymerase catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the nucleotides.
72
Q
A

Biology (7 decks)

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