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biology > C12 - Communicable diseases > Flashcards

C12 - Communicable diseases Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a communicable disease

A

Diseases that can be passed from one organism to another

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2
Q

What is a pathogen

A

Microorganisms that cause disease

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3
Q

What is a vector

A

Living/non-living organism that transmits a pathogen from one organism to another

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4
Q

What is bacteria

A

Prokaryote - no membrane bound nucleus or organelles
Only small proportion are pathogens

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5
Q

How can bacteria be classified

A

-By shapes
-By cell walls

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6
Q

What is a virus

A

Non-living infectious agent
Genetic material (DNA/RNA) surrounded by protein
All are pathogenic

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7
Q

What is a bacteriophage

A

Viruses that attack bacteria

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8
Q

What are protoctista/protista

A

Eukaryotes with wide range of feeding methods
Small amount are pathogens (parasites)
Require hosts

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9
Q

What are fungi

A

Eukaryotes
Cannot photosynthesise
So digest food extracellularly
Some fungi are parasites so pathogens
Spores enable rapid reproduction

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10
Q

How do viruses damage host tissues directly

A

Viral genetic material inserted into host DNA
Host cell makes more viruses
Viruses burst cell, destroying it. then infecting more cells

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11
Q

How do protoctista damage host tissues directly

A

Digest and use cell contents as they reproduce

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12
Q

How do fungi damage host tissues directly

A

Digest living cells destroying them

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13
Q

What type of pathogens release toxins

A

Bacteria
Fungi

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14
Q

What is a bacterial disease that affects plants

A

Ring rot
Damages leaves, tubers and fruit
No cure, once infected field cannot be used

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15
Q

What is a viral disease that affects plants

A

Tobacco mosaic virus
Damages leaves, flowers and fruit
Stunts growth, reduces yield
No cure, resistant crop strains available

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16
Q

What is a protoctista disease that affects plants

A

Potato blight
Destroy leaves tubers and fruit
No cure
Resistant strains, management, chemical treatments

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17
Q

What is a fungal disease that affects plants

A

Black sigatoka
Destroys leaves, turning them black
Reduces crop yield
No cure
Fungicide

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18
Q

What is a bacterial disease that affects humans

A

Tuberculosis
Damages and destroys lung tissue, suppresses immune system
Curable by antibiotics
Preventable by vaccination

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19
Q

What is a viral disease that affects humans

A

HIV/AIDS
Targets T helper cells, destroys immune system
Spread through unprotected sex, shared needles, from mothers to babies
No cure
Antiretroviral drugs help

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20
Q

What is a viral disease that affects humans (2)

A

Influenza
Infects ciliated epithelial cells, killing them, vulnerable to infection
No cure
Vaccines

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21
Q

What is a protoctista disease that affects humans

A

Malaria
Vector is mosquitos, spread through bite
Invades rbc, liver, brain
No vaccine, limited cures
Mosquitos destroyed by insecticides

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22
Q

What is a fungal disease that affects humans

A

Athlete’s foot
Grows on and digests warm, moist skin
Causes cracking, scaling which is itchy
Cure is antifungal cream

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23
Q

How can pathogens be transferred between animals directly

A

-Direct contact (touch)
-Inoculation (break skin)
-Ingestion (mouth)

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24
Q

How can pathogens be transferred between animals indirectly

A

-Fomites (inanimate object)
-Droplet infection (inhalation)
-Vectors
-Water (vector for disease)

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25
Q

Factors affecting transmission of communicable disease in animals

A

-Overcrowding
-Poor nutrition
-Compromised immune system
-Poor waste disposal
-Climate change
-Culture and infrastructure
-Socioeconomic factors

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26
Q

Direct transmission of pathogens between plants

A

Contact of healthy plant with any part of a diseased plant

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27
Q

Indirect transmission of pathogens between plants

A

-Soil contamination (spores left in soil)
-Vectors (wind, water, animals, humans)

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28
Q

Factors affecting transmission of communicable disease in plants

A

-Planting variety of crops susceptible to disease
-Overcrowding
-Poor mineral nutrition
-Damp, warm conditions
-Climate change

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29
Q

How do plants recognise and respond to an attack

A

Receptors respond to molecules from pathogen or to chemicals produced when cell wall attacked
Stimulates release of signalling molecules which switch on genes in nucleus
Triggers cellular responses

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30
Q

What is callose

A

Polysaccharide containing beta 1-3 linkages and beta 1-6 linkages between the glucose monomers
High levels produced during immune response

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31
Q

What are plants physical defences

A

-Callose synthesised, deposited between cell wall and membrane next to infected cells, barriers preventing pathogens entering
-Lignin added to make barrier thicker and stronger
-Callose block sieve plates preventing spread
-Callose deposited in plasmodesmata preventing spread

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32
Q

What are plants chemical defences

A

-Insect repellents
-Insecticides
-Antibacterial compounds
-Antifungal compounds
-Anti-oomycetes
-General toxins

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33
Q

How does blood clot

A

When platelets come into contact with collage/wall of damaged blood vessel, they adhere and secrete substances
-Thromboplastin: enzyme that triggers cascade of reactions forming blood clot
-Serotonin: makes smooth muscle in walls of blood vessel contract, reducing blood supply
Clot dries forming scab keeping pathogens out
Damage blood vessels regrow
Once epidermis reaches normal thickness scab goes

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34
Q

What are non-specific animal defences

A

-Skin acts as a physical barrier, sebum inhibits growth of pathogens
-Many body tracts lined with mucous membranes containing lysozymes , trapping and destroying pathogens
-Lysozymes in tears and urine/acid in stomach

35
Q

What is the inflammatory response

A

Localised response to pathogens resulting in inflammation
Mast cells are activated in damaged tissue and release chemicals called histamine and cytokines
-Histamines dilate blood vessels causing localised heat and redness (raised temp prevents pathogens reproducing)
-Histamines make blood walls more leaky so tissue fluid forced out causing swelling and pain
-Cytokines attract phagocytes

36
Q

What are non-specific immune responses

A

Fevers
Phagocytosis

37
Q

How do fevers protect the body

A

Body temp is 37C
-Higher than most pathogens optimum temperature
-Temp inc during immune response, immune response works faster at high temp

38
Q

What is phagocytosis

A

Process by which wbc called phagocytes recognise non-self cells, engulf them, digest them within a vesicle (phagolysosome)

39
Q

Describe phagocytosis

A

1) Pathogen produces chemicals that attract phagocytes
2) Phagocytes recognise non-human proteins on pathogen
3) Phagocyte engulfs pathigen enclosing it in a vacuole called a phagosome
4) Phagosome combines with ly some forming phagolysome
5) enzymes from lysine digest and destroy pathogen

40
Q

What are two types of phagocytes

A

Neutrophils
Macrophages

41
Q

How do macrophages engulf and destroy a pathogen

A

1) Digest pathogen
2) Combines antigen from pathogen with special glycoproteins in the cytoplasm (major histocompatibility complect)
3) MHC moves pathogens antigens to macrophages surface membrane creating antigen presenting cell (APC)
4) Antigens stimulate other cells involved in specific immune response

42
Q

How can you identify a specific or non specific response from blood smear

A

Identifying type of lymphocyte

43
Q

What are cytokines

A

Produced by mast cells
Cell-signalling molecules that attract phagocytes to site of infection
Increase body temp, stimulate immune response

44
Q

What is an opsonin

A

Chemicals that bind to pathogens and tag them so they are recignised by phagocytes more easily

45
Q

What is an opsonin

A

Chemicals that bind to pathogens and tag them so they are recignised by phagocytes more easily

46
Q

What is an antigen

A

Identifying chemical on the surface of a cell that triggers an immune response

47
Q

What is an antibody

A

Y shaped glycoprotein made by B cells of the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen.
Bind to a specific antigen on a pathogen or toxin that has triggered an immune response

48
Q

What is the structure of an antibody

A

4 chains: 2 heavy polypeptide chains, 2 shorter light polypeptide chains
Chains held together by disulphide bridges
Variable region is different (specificity)
Hinge region provides flexibility so it can bind to two antigens
Constant region is same on all antibodies

49
Q

What is the specific immunity

A

Immune system remembers antigen after initial response, leading to enhanced response to subsequent encounters
(aka active/acquired immunity)

50
Q

What is an antigen-antibody complex

A

Complex formed when an antigen binds to an antibody

51
Q

What are immunoglobulins

A

Y-shaped glycoproteins that form antibodies

52
Q

How do antibodies defend the body

A

-Act as agglutinins causing pathogen carrying anybody-antigen complexes to clump together, prevents spread, easier for phagocytes to engulf
-Acts as anti-toxin, binding to toxins produced by pathogen making them harmless
-Acts as opsonin so complex easily engulfed and digested by phagocyte
-Pathogens can no longer invade host cells when part of complex

53
Q

Where do T lymphocytes mature

A

Thymus gland

54
Q

Where do B lymphocytes mature

A

Bone marrow

55
Q

What are the main types of T lymphocytes

A

T helper cells
T killer cells
T memory cells
T regulator cells

56
Q

What are the main types of B lymphocytes

A

Plasma cells
B effector cells
B memory cells

57
Q

What is a T helper cell

A

Contain CD4 receptors on cell-surface membranes which bind to antigens on APCs
produce interleukins (cytokinesis- cell signalling molecule) stimulating activity of B cells
This inc antibody production , stimulates production of other T cells, attracts macrophages

58
Q

What is a T killer cell

A

Destroy pathogen carrying antigen using perforin which makes holes in cell membrane

59
Q

What is a T memory cell

A

Live for long time
Part of immunological memory
Divide rapidly into clones of T killer cells if subsequent exposure to antigen

60
Q

What is a T regulator cell

A

Suppress immune system to control and regulate it
Stop immune response once pathogen is eliminated
(Req interleukins)

61
Q

What is a plasma cell

A

Produce and release antibodies for specific antigen
Live for few days

62
Q

What is a B effector cell

A

Divide to form plasma cell clones

63
Q

What is a B memory cell

A

Live for long time
Provide immunological memory of specific antigen
Make subsequent responses rapid

64
Q

What is cell mediated immunity

A

Response to cells which have been changed
1) Macrophages engulf and digest pathogens in phagocytosis, form APCs
2) Receptors on some T helper cells fit antigens so become activated and produced interleukins which stimulate more T cells to divide by mitosis
3) Cloned T cells may:
-Devp into T memory cells
-Produce interleukins stimulating phagocytosis/B cells to divide
-Stimulate devp of T killer cells specific to antigen

65
Q

What is humoral immunity

A

Response to antigens found outside cells and APCs
B lymphocytes have antibodies on their cell surface membrane
1) Activated T helper cells bind to B cell APC (clonal selection - B cell with correct antibody selected)
2) Interleukins secreted by T helper cell to activate B cell
3) Activated B cell divides by mitosis to give clones of plasma cells and B memory cells (clonal expansion)
4) Cloned plasma cells produce complimentary antibodies that disable antigens or act as opsonin/agglutitins (Primary immune response)
5) Some cloned B cells become B memory cells (Secomdary immune response)

66
Q

What is an autoimmune resonse

A

Immune system acts against its own cells and destroys healthy tissue in the body

67
Q

What is natural active immunity

A

Immunity which results from the response of a body to the invasion of a pathogen

68
Q

What is natural passive immunity

A

Immunity given to an infant by the mother through the placenta and colostrum

69
Q

What is artificial active immunity

A

Immunity which results from exposure to a safe form of a pathogen

70
Q

Artificial passive immunity

A

Immunity which results from the administration of antibodies from another animal against a pathogen

71
Q

How does a vaccine work

A

1) Pathogen made safe so antigen is intact but no risk of infection (killed/inactivated, weakened, altered, detoxified,isolated, gm)
2) Small amounts injected into blood
3) Primary immune response triggered so body produces memory cells
4) Secondary immune response triggered in subsequent exposure to pathogen

72
Q

What is an epidemic

A

When communicable disease spreads rapidly to a lot of people on a local or national level

73
Q

What is a pandemic

A

When a communicable disease spreads to a lot of people across a number of countries

74
Q

What is herd immunity

A

Significant number of people have been vaccinated so it gives protection to people who haven’t been

75
Q

What is penicillin

A

First widely used safe antibiotic derived from mould Penicillium notatum

76
Q

Who discovered penicillin and how

A

Alexander Fleming in 1928
Found mould Penicillium chrysogenum growing on Staphylococcus cultures

77
Q

How are many medicines manufactured now

A

Chemical processes
Some still extracted from organic biological compounds
Penicillin- commercial extraction og from mould growing on melons

78
Q

What’s pharmocogenomics

A

Science of interweaving knowledge of drug actions with personal genetic materials
-Personalised medicine

79
Q

What is synthetic biology

A

Using genetic engineering techniques, bacteria can be developed that produces drugs needed

80
Q

What is selective toxicity

A

Ability to interfere with the metabolism of a pathogen without affecting the cells of the host

81
Q

What is the antibiotic dilemma

A

Antibiotic resistance

82
Q

What is antibiotic resistance

A

Antibiotics work because bacterium has binding site for drug
During reproduction, mutation can occur making antibiotic ineffective
Natural selection will cause large population of antibiotic resistant bacteria
Overuse of antibiotics can encourage this

83
Q

Give 2 examples of antibiotic resistant bacteria

A

MRSA (methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aures)
-Causes boils and abcesses
Clostridium difficile
-Produces toxins that damage gut

84
Q

How can antibiotic resistance be reduced

A

-Minimising use of antibiotics
-Good hygiene in hospitals

biology (14 decks)

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