Britain Transfromed - Changing Quality Of Life Flashcards

1
Q

Definition of Living Standard

A

A person’s standard of living is determined by a range of variables
The most important are those that contribute to a person’s physical well-being:
- access to clean water
- adequate sanitation
- quality of diet
- standard of housing
- availability of health care
In addition to such primary needs, some measures of standard of living also include less tangible variables:
- work-life balance
- levels of social capital
- impact of relative rather than absolute poverty on levels of satisfaction

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2
Q

Living Standards in Britain Context

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A number of factors affected living standards of living standards in 20th century Britain
Variations of these factors help to explain the range of living standards found in different regions and social classes
Income levels have been the determinant of living standards
- the fivefold growth of average real income between 1918-1979 goes a long way to explaining improved diets, health and housing in this period
State intervention, through legislation, targeted spending or propaganda, also played a large role in the improving quality of life
Technological advances, including those in communications, transport and domestic life, contributed to changes in living standard, though they did not always lead to straight forward improvements

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3
Q

Post-War Britain on Living Standards

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As the war came to an end, Lloyd George’s promises of na ‘land fit for heroes’ seemed to be a reality
There was a post-war boom and the government did little to regulate production
Initially, soldiers were returning home from war to jobs
However, this post-war boom collapsed into a recession in 1921
Wages fell for the poorest in society until 1934 and many7 families had to get by on less than £5 a week
Yet , for most Britons, living standards improved between the wars, largely because prices fell faster than wages
- the real cost of living fell by more than a 1/3between 1920 and 1938
An increase in contraception meant that family sizes decreased
This meant that family incomes were shared between fewer people

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4
Q

Negative and Positive impacts of the War on Living Standards

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The war had a disastrous permanent impact of many
702,000 people died and a further 1,670,000 were wounded as a resu;t of the fighting
In 1921, 1,187,450 men were in receipt of disability pensions
Some positive trends persisted from WW1 such as a decline in alcohol consumption which led to better health
Rationing towards the end of WW1 caused an increase causes an increase in healthier eating habits
However, for the poorest, their diet was still very poor
Health care also improved between the wars
By 1922, infant mortality had halved and diseases such as TB killed fewer people
This was thanks to advances in medicine and sanitation
The life expectancy increased
There, however, was still variation between regions
- hospital care was seen to be a ‘postcode lottery’

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5
Q

Regional Variations

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By the end of the 1920s, there was 1 million unemployed
1/3 of them we’re ex-servicemen
This led to cuts in living standards in mnsay areas
Whilst unemployment never fell below 1 million in the 1930s, this was not the same across Britain
New industries were appearing and this meant unemployment was lower in those areas
The decline in heavy industries had a huge impact on living standards
Industries such as coal and textiles saw a decline due to WW1
This made a stark regional differences in living standards
The gap between the wealthiest and the poorest areas widened in the 1920s and 1930s
Decline in traditional industries led to economic depression in the North
Unemployment was higher in the North and consumption was lower here than in the South
Although consumerism spread to the middle class before 1939, it is not possible to talk about a mass consumer market in Britain before the late 1940s
Families on lower incomes could not take part in the growth of consumerism until purchase prices and running costs had fallen to an affordable level

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6
Q

Total War 1939-1951

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Total war meant t5hat everyone was affected by the war
The war on the Home Front had devastating impact with 2 out of every 7 houses being destroyed during the Blitz
Mass bombing during the war resulted in the deaths of 40,000 people and destruction of around 2 million homes
However, this gave architects and town planners the opportunity to rebuild old houses
People moved into houses with bathrooms, kitchens and modern appliances
Evacuation of children from cities to the countryside helped to raise awareness of how ‘slum children’ were living
Rationing was introduced due to lac of supplies
Although this restricted diet for the wealthiest, it actually gave the poorest more to eat
A healthier diet was encouraged
The new government also formed the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts
A range of jobs were created during the war and civilian munitions workers were offered good standards of pay and working conditions
Average pay for British workers increased during the war, however they could only bury as much as their rations allowed
To allow women to work, crèches were established

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7
Q

Austerity 1939-1951

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Attlee’s Labour Party had planned to introduce a new Welfare State which would include the creation of a National Health Service
However, this would take a lot of money which the government did not have
Therefore, Labour had to make cuts, otherwise known as austerity
1945-1951 is known as the age of austerity
The Age of Austerity saw government cut backs to deal with the cost of war
This saw increased taxes on incomes and items
Rationing was not repealed until 1954
Income tax remained at 45%, surtax was payable on top by the wealthy
Tax on beer reached record levels
Cripps needed the high revenue to help control domestic spending and the escalating costs of the health service
Despite a good year for exports in 1948 (and helps via Marshall Aid, a balance of payments crisis developed) result of temporary downturn in US economy

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8
Q

Consumer Society 1951-1979 - Introduction

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Harold Macmillian famously declared in the 50’s that ‘most of our people had never had it so good’
This reflected the fact that the country had managed to recover from WW2 by the late 50s
It also reflected how Britain’s mixed economy successfully provided for most of the population
However, there were limitations to this
In 1957, Britain spent just over £1 billion on consumer goods, rising to £1.5 billion by 1960
- this shops that consumption of luxuries dramatically increased in a short space of tike
Wages in 1959 were twice what they were in 1950

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9
Q

Consumerism Definition

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Consumerism is best understood as a series of attitudes and behaviours associated with the consumption of goods and services
It is generally used in a negative sense
- people in a consumerist society are encouraged by clever marketing to spend more and more money on things that they were told will bring them happiness
- as a result, people begin to define themselves and others by what they buy and place more value on the ownership of material objects

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10
Q

Reasons for the Consumer Society

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  • Global economic boom
  • Welfare State
  • Loew energy prices
  • Consenus
  • Credit
  • Rise in wages
  • Strong Trade Unions
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11
Q

Advantages of the Consumer Society

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Increased disposable income enabled a growing list of ‘wants’ and ‘needs’ after 1951 that would have amazed pre-war generations
Many of these centred on the home
Increased domestic energy consumption is a clear indicator of this trend
- gas sales more than doubled between 1952-1970
Homes became more comfortable, warmer, clear and nicer-smelling places in which to spend increasing amount of free time
The shift away from open fired to central heating was key in this
This change, together with increased TV ownership, fuelled demand for other domestic goods
In Britain, almost every household had a TV by 1970
Personal appearance and hygiene became more important
- the role of advertising increased should not be underestimated
- the money spent on advertising increased threefold between 1947 and 1970
New fashions, such as ‘the Look’ meant that from the mid-1960s, it was almost impossible to tell a young woman’s class from the way he dressed
The first supermarket opened in St. Albans in 1947 but it was the opening of Sainsbury’s in Croydon that marked the permanent start of the supermarket era
- this gave more people choice and drove down prices
Credit allowed working class families to buy consumer goods such as cars
- rules around credit were relaxed
It was also seen as more socially acceptable to live beyond your means

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12
Q

Concern About the Consumer Society

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However, there were some concerns about this new consumer society
- writer J.B. Priestley called it “Admass’
People were worried about the ‘Americanisation’
- Harry Hopkins called Britain just ‘one more off shore island’
Despite Macmillian’s claims of people ‘never having it so good’, some Britton’s still lived in poverty
In 1966, the showing charity Shelter was friended to help the 12,000 people nationwide who were homeless
In 1967, c7.5 million people were living beneath the poverty line
The high rise flats that were built. We’re often cold, damp and dangerous
There were high levels of crime on these estates

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13
Q

Cinema

A

Overall popularity of the cinema has changed over time
- the greater the audience of a film, the more likely it is to have an impact
The cinema became so popular during WW1 due to films like ‘The Battle of the Somme’ (1916)
The introduction of ‘talkies’ in 1928 further increased the popularity of going to the cinema
Cinema remained the most important medium of popular culture in inter-war Britain
In 1950, the average person went to the cinema 28 times a year
- this was more than any other nation, including the US
There was a demand for escapism during WW2
However, after record high ticket5 sales of 1.635 billion in 1946, attendance fell steadily until the late 80s
Shrinking audiences meant that some cinemas had to close
The growth of Tv played an important role here
The impact of cinema was all affected by the make-up of the audience
- the typical profile of a regular cinemagoer was young, urban and working class
In 1946, 69% of 16-19 year olds went once a week, compared to 11% of over 60s
People in the North, on average, went twice as much as people in the South
Despite the differences, Britons enjoyed similar films
In all parts of the country, Saturday mornings were set aside for children
The content also affected the impact
There were concerns about the impact of films on ‘impressionable’ audiences
However, the majority of viewers saw the cinema as escapism
- they appreciated the difference between real life and the film
The BBFC saw it as their duty to protect Britons from bad language, sex and subversive ides
The 1959 Obscenity Act led to greater permissiveness at the BBFC
Films such as ‘Get Carter’, ‘A Clockwork Orange’ and ‘Straw Dogs’ (all 1971) contained scenes of extreme violence
- these films were allowed to be released by the BBFC with a classification
The BBFC were also concerned about the ‘Americanisation’ of cinema goers
- levies ere produced which funded British film making
- the 1927 Quota Act ensured that British films made up 20% of those shown by 1938
The 1970s saw the return of American dominance due to cuts in American funding of British films and Conservative cuts of funding

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14
Q

Music

A

The British people have always remained attached to middle brow and popular music
Popular music, and the dance styles that went along with it, cut across all classes
There were several waves of American influence on popular music
- the most important being the arrival ragtime and jazz during WW1, the rise of swing and bop during the 1930s, country and western and rhythm and blues during the 1940s and rock and roll during the 1950s
Dance halls became popular after the arrival of the foxtrot dance shortly before WW1
- they remained popular thanks to other American dances such as the Charleston
- dance halls allowed working class men and women to enjoy a degree of luxury which they could not at home
- it was also a socially acceptable way of meeting a partner
Rock’n’roll became popular in the mid-50s
Whilst the first popular examples were American, later rock’n’roll music was British
Record companies found ‘heart throb’ acts such as Cliff Richard and Tommy Steele, to imitate Elvis Presley
- they led their artists to release more respectable songs to appeal to teenage girls
The Beatles are an iconic act of the 1960s, and to many they symbolise the decade
- “Beatlemania’ spread across the country by mid-1963
- in 1964, they led the ‘British invasion’ of the American charts and were able to secure 12 records in Billboard’s Magazine’s Hot 100
In the 1970s, there were a number of different trends in popular music
They can be seen as escapist, or reflective of the troubling times
‘Glam rock’ rose to the force in the 1970s
- artists such as Slade and Gary Glitter were part of this trend
By the mid-1970s, this was going out of fashion and performers like David Bowie had to contend with the rise of New York-inspired disco
This contrasted with the home-made, anarchist style of punk
- The Sex Pistols rose to fame in the late 1970s
- this new music style influenced fashion

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15
Q

Television

A

When looking at the influence of the mass media, television is most important
The existence of the TV changed the family dynamic and the shows were able to reach a wide audience
Televisions become popular after WW2
Before this, it cannot be considered a mass media
- moving pictures were not broadcast to TVs in British homes until 1929
Sales of TVs took due to the turn of the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953
- people wanted to watch the event all over the country
From here, TVs grew more and more popular
- between 1977-1979, people on average watched 16 hours of TV per week ,in the summer
This domestication of spare time blurred class lines
- anyone, regardless of class, could watch similar programmes and talk to people of other classes about them
In 1955, the BBC monopoly on the TV was ended when 14 independent companies were allowed to begin broadcasting
There were concerns that these new channels would promote materialism and Americanisation
- the 1964 Television Act forced the ITV companies to screen 2 plays and 2 current affairs, in addition to the news each week
Hard hitting, social realist plays were produced, such as ‘Up the Junction’ (1965) and ‘Cathy Come Home’ (1966)
- these plays had an impact on those who saw them but didn’t directly change things very much
While the plays contained controversial material, they didn’t inspire a rebellion of the working-class
- the working class actually held the most conservative opinions about liberal reforms
The programme that they identified with the most was Coronation Street
Satirical programmes became popular and influences the youth to question their elders and other authority figures
Other popular programmes were ‘Upstairs Downstairs’, ‘The professionals’ and ‘The Sweeney’
In the 1970s, sitcoms were produced which attracted audiences of up to 20 million

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16
Q

Youth Culture

A

The word ‘teenager’ only came into regular use afternoon 1945
The interwar growth of the disposable income of young workers was a crucial prerequisite for the rise of ‘youth culture’
Younger people did not have to need to buy food or pay rent and therefore had money to spend on entertainment and luxuries
Young people began to differentiate themselves from their parents through their purchases and their leisure pursuits
Mass media widened the gap in fashion and medical taste even before television owenership
Pirate radio helped to shape youth culture
Advertisers wanted to tap into the youth market
In addition to going to cinema and dance halls, like their parents, the youth in the 1950s liked to go to coffee or milk bars to ‘hang out’ and listen to music
The first coffee bars were opened by Italian immigrants in London in 1952
Music in these bars was often provided not by a live band, but a jukebox, which was invented in America in 1927

17
Q

Youth Culture and Television

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Historian Bill Osgerby said that the first popular music programmes on the BBC, such as Hit Parade (1952) were low key in the youth appeal
- he stated that they made concessions to older viewers
Programmes like ‘Six-Five Special’ and ITVs ‘Oh Boy!’ Began to crop up
The ITV show was able top focus solely on youth culture, not including any of the folk and jazz which featured on all BBC programmes
These shows popularised later pop trends, such as the Mod or Rocker look at a much quicker rate than previous trends such as the Teddy Boy look
- Rockers followed the American style jeans, white t-shirts and leather jackets whilst Mods drew their inspiration from Italian style hit tight, smart trousers and Ben Sherman shirts

18
Q

Clear Definers of Youth Culture

A

Youth culture was most clearly defined by music and fashion
Some of the most popular styles in the 1960s and 1970s included: Mods, Rockers, Beatniks, Hippies, Skinheads, Glam Rockers and Punks
For the majority of young people, such styles were about a sense of fun and identity

19
Q

Views of Youth Culture

A

Many adults felt that the youth culture was out of control in a way that had never happened ‘in their day’
In reality, while there was a slight rise in youth crime in the 1950s and 1960s, young people were no more violent, drunk or disrespectful than they has been in previous generations

20
Q

Transport and Leisure Pursuits

A

Before the 1980s, leisure was seen as an unimportant area for historical study
However, more recent generations of historians have appreciated that British people spent an increasing amount of time outside of work and became increasingly defined by leisure pursuits, rather than employment
Time away from work, began to increase in then late 19th century for a range of reasons
Rising incomes and reduced working hours were key enabling factors but legislation, such as the 1971 Bank Holiday Act, togetherness with improvements in health, communications and technology all made leisure more possible for those outside of then upper class
Trade Unions fought hard to gain paid holidays, with the 1938 Holidays with Pay Act

21
Q

Spectator Sports

A

The growth of spectator sports can be divided into before and after the rise of TV
Radio and the national press had created a national community of interest in sports, especially the national sports of football and cricket
Attendance for both cricket and football increased between the wars and some of the largest crowds for regular football league fixtures were seen just before TV took off in the early 1950s
The power of TV to capture the intense emotions of sporting events was noted when the 1948 London Olympics became the first to be televised
The impact of the spectacle was limited however, due to low sales of TV sets and a broadcast radius of only 25 miles
As TV began to broadcast more sport, fans began to move from the terraces to their sofas
TV also injected a lot of media and advertising revenue into the sport
- extra money was large incentive for professional players to assert their worth snd reject earlier financial limits (limitations to how much professional footballers could be payed)

22
Q

The Growth of Live Spectator Sports

A

Although the majority of fans at football matches were men, women also followed in large numbers from the start of the Football League
- Preston North End FC had to withdraw its offer of free tickets for women after 2000 turned up to watch a match
Britain was the global leader in transforming local games into established national sports with clearly defined rules
- this is due to Britain being the first industrial nation
- the growth of factories made it easier to organise workers into teams and set up local matches or leagues
The rise of mass transport and communications made national leagues
The Football Association found founded in 1888, with Scottish and Irish equivalents following in 1890
Between 1920 and 1922, three national divisions were created with the possibility of promotion or regulation between them
Clubs became a powerful source of local r pride and loyalty
Regular working hours and the Saturday half-day enabled men to take part in competitive sport
- this was encouraged by bosses as a healthy use of free time
The growth of national newspapers, radios and cinema accelerated interest in football
- fcootball was the most popular spirt
The number of clubs affiliated to the FA increased from 12,00 in 1910 to 17,973 in 1928 and then 41,096 by 1985
Average attendance at top football matches increased from v23,000 in 1914 to almost 31,000 in 1938
People were drawn to matches by low tikcet prices
- a ticket cost a sixpence (2.5 pence) in 1914

23
Q

The Decline of Live Spectatorship

A

The growth of TV led to a decline in ticket sales
Attendance fell to 29.6 million in 1969-1970 and then 24.6 million in 1979-1980
The rise of hooliganism also contributed to this trend
- the increase in violence was due to increased numbers of fans who could afford to go to away matches and the tendency for older, married men to stay at home
- where young fans had once been restrained by older relatives, there was no one to stop them getting out of control
- this got so bad that many clubs built steel cage fences to keep fans off the pitch
At the same time, it became more attractive to watch football, and other sports, on the TV
- the rise of colour TV, multiple camera angles and slow-motion replays in the 1960s all greatly enhanced viewer enjoyment
32 million people saw England win the 1966 World Cup on TV
Growing TV audiences were reflected in high fees paid to screen sporting events and the huge increase in advertising money channelled into sport
- from £1 million in 1966 to £16 million in 1976 and then to £100 million by 1983
Before 1963, professional footballer’s wages were capped at a weekly maximum of £20 (1961)
- although, this was unfair on the most talented players, it did mean that ticket prices were affordable
- it also meant that the biggest clubs could not simply buy access by outspending their rivals
However, the threat of strike by the Professional Footballers Association led to wage caps to be scrapped
- in 1978, Kevin Keegan reportedly earned £250,000
Football became increasingly dominated by the interest of big businesses rather than ordinary fans
- e.g. shirts having sponsors

24
Q

Sport and Gender

A

Women participated in sport far less than men
- men made up around from 9% of men in 1961 to 29% in 1979n
- female figures were 6% (1961) to 17% (1979)
Sport reinforced traditional gender roles
- women were not allowed to join leading golf clubs or sport governing bodies
The one challenge to this was cycling, where women, appropriately dressed, were able to forge a new association between sport an female identity
It became increasingly popular for women to keep fit, as a healthy body became a part of the perfect housewife image
Participation in sport by both genders was encouraged by the construction of sport centres
- in 1970, there were on;y 27 in England
- this had increased to 167 by 1975
Access to swimming pools and leather and fitness equipment was important for female participation in sport, as women were excluded from team sports, like football

25
Q

Leisure Time and Mass Tourism Context

A

Leisure was increased to the ,asses in the 20th Century
This means that people had more free tike
This was due to a great affluence and legislative changes
Previously, workers had been allowed to take a holiday, but this was usually unpaid
Before 1938, less than half of the population left home for even a single night during the year

26
Q

Increase in Holidays

A

The Holidays with Pay Act was introduced in 1938
- the Act strongly suggested that 3 consecutive days of holiday should be paid for by employers
- this was still too short of a time to affect British holiday making
- most holidays ere a couple of days at a local seaside resort
In 1937, only around 1/3 of Britons took a holiday of a week or more away from home
The amount of leisure for the average worker steadily increased in the 60s and 70s
- for full time manual workers, this increased from 2 weeks paid holiday in 1960, to 3 in 1975 and 4 in 1979
Increases in free tike afforded Britons a range of holiday choices

27
Q

Holiday Locations for Britons

A

Holiday locations within the UK were class based
By the 1930s, Blackpool; had 7 million working class visitors each year
Britton’s wanted more time away from the home in fresh air and countryside
The Youth Hostel Association saw rapid increases in membership

28
Q

Holiday Camps

A

The main change was the launch of commercial holiday camps in 1937
William Butlin launched his first camp in Skegness
- by 1939, there were 200 holiday camps in Brian, which could cater for 30,000 visitors per week
Many poorer families could now afford to gov away
The camps remained popular through WW2 and into the 50s

29
Q

Impact of WW2 on Holidays

A

During WW2, roads and railways needed to be free for military and supply purposes
- the government tried various methods to prevent travel for pleasure
Petrol rations were introduced, but didn’t entirely prevent the use of cars for holidays
Ordered were given to prevent railways companies putting on additional trains etc peak holidy times
- the latter two measures were largely ineffective
Vera Britain “The British determination to celebrate a holiday somehow was obvious to the most casual observer”
The government tried to promote ‘Holidays at Home’ 1941-1942
Some wartime developments prompted the growth of holiday camps
Prisoner of war camps, military barracks and workers’ hostels provided the infrastructure for4 posit-War expansion

30
Q

Caravan Holidays

A

With more money, people could now afford caravan holidays
- this opened up areas which were previously restricted to the wealthy who has a second home

31
Q

Holidays Abroad

A

In 1951, 25 million people went on holidy
- 2 million of those went on holidays abroad
Holidays abroad increased due to cheap package holidays
P people used tour operators like Thomas Cook
- Benidorm was the most popular resort and seaside holidays and holiday camps declined from the mid-60s
Many British people were nervous of travelling abroad because of foreign cutout and food
Foreign travel helped us get into the EEC (EU), and changed food and wine consumption
- package holidays would make typically British foods available on a package holidays for those who did travel abroad
- holiday and travel promoted foreign food in Britain eventually