Britain Transformed -

Question 1

Class Structure and Social Values

Answer 1

Since 1918, a number of factors have affected class structure and the self-identification of British people within that structure
By 1979, far more people identified the skies as middle class due to the growth in average wealth and income, and the rise in white collar jobs
Technological changes, the availability of cheaper consumer goods and the growth of disposable income have enabled a wider range of people to enjoy familiar fashions and leisures, things that would have been clear class identifiers in 1918
The rise in mass educations and welfare promoted social mobility and blurred class boundaries before 1979
Mass media further democratised British society through its promotion of ordinary celebrities and satire aimed at traditional elite figures

Question 2

The Upper Class

Answer 2

The average Briton read about upper class society in newspapers like the Express and Daily Mail
They were distinguished from the rest of society by their huge wealth , their dress, education and social calendar (the Season)
This began with a debutants ball which lasted until Queen Elizabeth II ended it in 1958 because, as her sister Princess Margaret said, “We put a stop to it. Every tart in London was getting in”
Such events gave a clear identity and social glue to the upper class which enables them to survive some major challenges to their power and wealth
- however, these events allowed those at the top of the middle class to affect an upper class identity

Question 3

WW1 Effects on the Upper Class

Answer 3

WW1 contributed to the decline of the upper class in 2 key ways:
1) it took a heavy toll on their lives
- while 12.9% of men in the army died, 19% of peers and their sons, and 20.7% of Old Etonians died
- this was largely because the served as officers who, as they were expected to lead from the front, and had a higher mortality rate
2) the cost of war prompted a huge increase in income tax and death duties
- estates worth over £2 million were subject to a 40% duty and tax incomes over £2,500 rose from 2% (1914) to 57% (1925)
- death duties were increased in 1929, 1946 and 1949, and were not reduced in this period
- wartime restrictions on raising rents, and the reduction in labour due to conscription made running the country estates far harder to pay for
This led to the gentry selling of almost 1/4 of all land in England between 1918 and 1920
- only the largest land owners were able to maintain their vast estates
- the 1979 Royal Commission on the Distribution of income and Wealth found that a quarter of all farmland in England was owned by just 1,200 land owners
This increased willingness of the gentry to work for a living and the ability of a wealthy businessmen to purchase titles led to the emergence of a new upper class that was only partly based on ancestry

Question 4

The Upper Class and Politics

Answer 4

While the older element of the upper class retained their land, they lost their grip on political over
The rise of the Labour Party accelerated the decline of landed-elite power in the House of Commons
The House of Lords no longer functioned as a bastion of power
- the Parliament Act of 1911 meant that the Lords could only delay rather than block legislation

Question 5

The Upper Class and the Rise of Social Mobility

Answer 5

The rise of satire and greater social mobility after WW2 undermined deference in the 1960s and 1970s
This social mobility was more possible because there was a rise in the number of middle class jobs and educational opportunities improved with the implementation of the 1944 Education act
Real wages for all workers improved in the 1950s when the growth of affordable consumer goods and cars blurred class boundaries
However, the openingup of TV shows such as Brideshead Revisited meant that the country house lifestyle remained the goal for most Britons and allowed for the upper class to Weil cultural power

Question 6

The Middle Class

Answer 6

The middle class is most easily identified by what it is not
- they are neither the ruling class nor manual workers
There remained a great deal of variety in the wealth, attitudes and leisure pursuits of the upper and lower middle class throughout the 20th century
The traditional divide between the middle and upper class had been based on land ownership as means of income and aristocratic title
Although this barrier became became increasingly porous and now participation in the Season marked the distinction between the rich and the upper class

Question 7

The Lower Middle Class

Answer 7

The lower middle class worked hard to differentiate themselves from the working class, not only in their jobs but in their cultural and leisure pursuits as well
They saw themselves as upright, moral people who set the standards of the community and therefore looked down on the working class
The middle class were troubled by rising working class incomes

Question 8

The Middle Class and Wartime Inflation and Changes

Answer 8

Wartime inflation contributed to the fear of the working class catching up to them, due to its impact on middle-class savings and incomes
- something that cost £100 in 1914 would cost £276 in November 1920
Middle class people blames trade unions but inflation was more to do with the war time economy
The middle class saw themselves as defenders of order and the constitution
The middle class were very concerned with the working class invading their life, which explains why many of the middle class citizens backed the Conservatives

Question 9

The Middle Class and Growing Power

Answer 9

The middle class went from strength to strength recruiting more members from below, whilst cementing their distinct advantages over the working class
The was gave a spur to middle class employment
The growth of respectable jobs in STEM and salaried jobs in management and administration drove middle class expansion
Workers in these jobs saw themselves as modern, progressive and financially responsible

Question 10

The Middle Class and Home Ownership

Answer 10

Home ownership became a defining characteristic of middle-class status
Interwar contemporaries spoke of a new middle class who had bought homes since 920
By 1939, 60% of the middle class were home owners
The middle class led the way in domestication of leisure time

Question 11

The Working Class Evolution

Answer 11

The general consensus is that WW2 brought greater change than WW1 and that this was largely a product of sustained of effective government intervention after 1945, compared to the broken promises of a land fit for heroes after 1918
The working class was highly varied with skilled workers, unskilled workers and criminals
Full employment during the wars helped to absorbs the criminals into the respectable workings class
Trade union membership increased by 90% between 1914 and 1918

Question 12

The Working Class and Trade Unions/Working Life

Answer 12

It was the trade union movements as a who;E rather than 1 sector of the working class that suffered from the effects of the slump after WW1
However, the diverse regional impact of the economic slump and the Great Depression make it difficult to generalise about the experience of the working class as a whole
- the major division was between those with and those without work
- those in work enjoyed rising wages and lower working hours and then could take advantage of mass leisure activities
- historians have commented that the working class were passive before increased consumerism

Question 13

The Working Class and Lack of Serious Protest

Answer 13

There were other reasons for a lack of serious working class protest
Trade union membership fell 40% during the 1920-1922 recession and failed to recover in thr aftermath of the General Strike
Areas of industrial growth tended to be non-unionised
Around 1/2 of the working class voted for the Conservatives between the wars

Question 14

The Working Class and Finances/Social Views/Health

Answer 14

The welfare reforms introduced by the pre-1914 Liberal government helped reduce the social stigma of state assistance for those at the bottom
Those nearer the top prided themselves on responsible use of their weekly wage anf aspired to middle class standards in the community
Rationing helped promote working class health
- life expectancy rose from 49 years to 56 years (men) and 53 years to 60 years (women) between 1911 and 1921

Question 15

The Working Class Reality

Answer 15

In many ways, the gained expected by the working class failed to materialise
Although the state now provided a basic safety net, many people continued to live in squalor with poor diets
Slum clearances didn’t start until the 1950s and landlords took advantage of tenants

Question 16

Challenges to Traditional Ideas

Answer 16

Satire and lack of deference
British New Wave
Sex Scandals
General Gap

Question 17

Liberal Laws

Answer 17

1959 Obscene Publications Act
1961 Suicide Act
1965 Murder Act (abolition of the Death Penalty)
1967 Sexual Offences Axt
1967 Abortion Act
1967 Family Planning Act
1969 Divorce Reform Act

Question 18

Profumo Affair

Question 19

The Liberal Society

Answer 19

The Sixties are often seen as a pivotal decade when legal, medical and social changes led to an profound growth of liberal values in Britain
They were a period of change
The new Labour government had to keep up with this
During the 1960’s, several laws were introduced regarding abortion, birth control, homosexuality and divorce
However, this did not necessarily mean that everyone agreed
We must consider how much of society actually held these values and whether the acts reflect the values of the public

Question 20

Reasons for Liberal Reforms Surrounding Sex

Answer 20

Liberal values surrounding sex did not emerge out of thin air
Marie Stopes “Married Love” (1918) was a best seller that challenged the general reluctance to discuss sex in public
Stopes argued that women, as well as men, should enjoy sex in their marriage

Question 21

WW2 Impact on Liberal Reforms and Following Acts

Answer 21

There were widespread concerns that WW2 chad undermined traditional values by separating husbands and wives
- people said that it promoted sex outside of marriage and encouraged divorce
A number of post-war books helped to promote a more open attitude towards sexuality
- the most important of these were by the American sexologist, Alfred Kinsey
The 1959 Obscene Publications Act recognised greater openness to sexual images and discussion but only at an elite level, serious works of art could use obscene words and images
The 1968 Theatres Act allowed for films to be screened if they had some sexual content
It was clear that discussion of sex was much more accepted and people began to see sex as something that should be done for pleasure rather than a part of married life

Question 22

Liberal Laws vs Social Attitudes

Answer 22

A series of liberal laws were passed between 1959 and 1969
However, just because the laws had changes doesn’t mean that attitudes had changed
Pressure for these acts came from long before the 1960s and so shouldn’t be seen just as a result of changing attitudes in the 1960s
Labour worried about pushing away traditional voters with acts such as the Abortion Act, but Home Secretary, Roy Jenkins, saw these changes as the measure of a more ‘civilised society’

Question 23

Surveys Showing Changing Youth

Answer 23

2 major surveys ‘The Sexual Behaviour of Young People’ (1965) and ‘Sex and Marriage in England Today’ (1971) suggested that notions of a sexual revolution are exaggerated
Whilst promiscuity existed amongst teenagers, it was not the norm
The goal was still to get married and have children
However, there is seen to be a decline in the importance attached to marriage, with more teenagers being accepted of sex before marriage and a rise in divorce and single parent families

Question 24

The Wolfenden Report and The Sexual Offences Act

Answer 24

The Woldfen Report was published in 1957
It concluded that the criminalisation of homosexuality was an impingement on civil liberty
While the law should prevent abuse and protect the young and other vulnerable individuals, it should not intrude into to matters of personal morality
Homosexual acts between consenting adults in private should no longer constitute an offence
The Cabinet opposed any proposal to implement Wolfenden’s recommendations
This didn’t change until the mid-1960s, and even then, almost all of the changes came as a result of private members’ bills
- governments were scared to become unpopular by passing cuts to legalise homosexuality
- however none would have made it onto the statue book without government approval and help
Leo Abse, a Welsh Labour MP, was responsible for the Sexual Offences Bill
There was growing pressure from the great and the good to legalise bisexual practises between consenting adults
Many noted how the law, as it stood, encouraged blackmail and the spy, John Vassall, would have probably not have betrayed his country had it not been possible for the Russians to blackmail him for his sexuality
Across the country, there was a slow, but growing, tolerance for homosexuality

Question 25

The Abortion Act

Answer 25

The issue of abortion was even more controversial than homosexuality
The illegality of abortion makes estimates of its extent difficult, but 100,000 per year in the UK in the 1950s appear likely
This added up to considerable medical risk as well as social stigma and humiliation for may girl and women
David Steel’s Bill not only legalised abortion on the ground of physical harm to the mother, but also allowed her mental health to be taken into account, and it was on these grounds that the majority of abortion were to be undertaken

Question 26

The Family Planning Act

Answer 26

Another liberalisation sought to cut the number of unwanted pregnancies and the 1967 Family Planning Act removed the restrictions of medical or martial status on women’s access to local authority birth control services
This was, of course, dammed by some as encouraging ‘immortality’ among the unmarried
It was not until 1969, after Jenkins had left the Home Office, that another of his favoured projects finally entered the statute book

Question 27

The Divorce Reform Act

Answer 27

The Divorce Reform Ac6 made divorce much easier
To its supporters, it helped to end years of private of private suffering and domestic unhappiness
To its critics, it encouraged the break-up of family

Question 28

Opponents of the Liberal Society

Answer 28

Serious and sustained challenges to the permissive society came from religious leaders, public leaders, public figures and some Conservative politicians
Despite voting for the Abortion Act and the Sexual Offences Act, Thatcher became increasingly outspoken about her fears for public standards of decency
In 1970, she told the ‘Finchley Press’ that she would like to see a “reversal of the permissive society” in the decade ahead
Her attitude on permissive values continue and in 1977, she complained that “basic Christian values were under attack”

Question 29

Mary Whitehouse

Answer 29

Mary Whitehouse first became concerned about modern morality after talking to pupils in her job as an art teacher
She joined a group called Moral Rearmament whose aim was to ‘remake the world’
In 1963, she decided to focus on the damage done to British morals by mass media, in particular Hugh Carleton-Greene (Director General of the BBC 1960-1969), whom she blamed for the growth of liberal values on TV
She managed to secure 500,000 signatures on her Clean-Up TV petition in 1964, which she sent to the Queen
In 1965, this campaign merged with the NVALA
In 1977, she launched a legal case against the magazine ‘Gay News’ for publishing a poem about a Roman solider having sex with Jesus
She won the case and the opener was given a prison sentence
Whitehouse, speaking in her 1977 book ‘Whatever Happened to Sex?’, said that “being gay was like having acne”
She campaigned against pornography and her letter to government played a role in bringing in a law in 1981, which required sex shops to have blacked out windows

Question 30

The Festival of Light

Answer 30

The Nationwide Festival of Light was staged in Hyde Park in September 1971 to promote Christian morality
It was supported by famous figures, including Cliff Richard
The build-up of the event inspired 70 regional rallies
Although the event attracted crows of never 100,000 people, it had little impact on permissive trends in the media

Question 31

Carnaby Street and The Media

Answer 31

While Carnaby Street sold itself as the heart of Swinging London, a large majority of the population experienced the social revolution second-hand through mass media
A poll published by the Sunday Times in 1966 suggested most people were bored of hearing about new fashions and pop trends
There was a regional divide as well as a generational divide

Question 32

Introductions to Changes for Women

Answer 32

Women were excluded from a range of opportunities open to men at the start of 1918
The hope of female suffrage campaigners was that the vote would an all further reform in a range of areas that affected women, from healthcare and eduction to family life and employment
Although women in 1979 enjoyed far more choice and independence than their mothers and grandmothers, progress towards a parity of opportunity with men was limited

Question 33

Women and Politics

Answer 33

There was no clear link between the right to vote and political advancement
8.5 million women gained the right to vote in 1918, however only 17 women stood as parliamentary candidates and only 1 was selected
This number remained low in inter war years
Number of Female MPs in Different Years:
- 1922 = 5
- 1923 = 5
- 1924 = 4
- 1931 = 15
- 1935 = 9
There were a number of reasons why there was a failure to translate votes into political advancements:
- structure of parties
- attitudes of parties
- local rather than national government
- conflicts of ideologies

Question 34

Women and WW2s Impact on Politics

Answer 34

The war impacted political advancement in a range of ways:
- the war led to more experienced female politicians which mean that males could not deny that women could work in politics
- women began to work together despite differing political viewpoints
- 1940 - Women Power Committee
- 1941 - Bevan sets up Women’s Consultative Committee
- women fought to earn equal compensation for wartime injuries
- female MPs were unable to secure equal pay
- male MPs were now used to considering female issue and taking them more seriously

Question 35

Women and Post War Politics

Answer 35

1945-1955, there were 24/630 female MPs and then in 1975 there was 23/635
Having asserted themselves effectively in the war, women were unable to press home possible gains in terms of female representation in parliament
The same issue which were barriers previously continued to apply:
- women has issues being selected as the candidate for an area
- female MPs now wanted to be all round politicians rather than simply a female rights advocate
Developments outside of parliament led to political advancements
The Women’s Libera; Movement met in Oxford in 1970 to set an agenda for ‘women’s lib’
- this included equal education, equal pay, free contraception and a portions and provisos of childcare
Feminist literature became popular in Britain
- the literature encouraged women to stand up to the male-dominated society

Question 36

Women and Trade Unions

Answer 36

Women joined trade unions for the first time between 1914 and 1918
- many unions rejected females or only granted tbh m temporary membership
- this would allow for discrimination in the workplace to continue
However, female involvement allowed some women to reach high roles within trade unions
- for example, Margaret Bondfield was elected to the General Council of the TUC in 1918
TU’s remained highly masculine areas until the 80s, when unions made an effort to increase female representation
It was not until the early 2000s that women began to lead TU’s
- the first female leader of the TUC was elected in 2012

Question 37

Women and Family Life Changing due to War

Answer 37

After WW1, women went back to their jobs due to pressure from the TU’s to given men back their jobs and the 191 Restoration of Pre-War Practises Act
- this was mainly accepted by females
The marriage bar was also quickly re-established
Women were conscripted to do ‘male work’ during the war due to the loss of manpower
- this was in addition to the thousands of women who worked in the Land Army or as a non-combat members of the Armed Forces
Although, this did not mean every women was now equal to men, it meant that men accepted women as workers
The money earned by women in the war led to a change in female aspirations
In the late 1950s, over 50% of housewives said they were bored of that role

Question 38

Women and Other Changes in Family Life

Answer 38

War was not the only factor in cemented greater participation of British women in the workplace
Labour-saving devices like washing machines enable women to deviate less time to domestic chores
Shifts in the labour market meant that there were more part-time jobs or semi-skilled jobs, which made up the majority of female employment
However, women still experienced a glass ceiling in employment and unequal pay
Marriage was seen as the main goal in life before feminists began to challenge this notion in the 1960s and 1970s
The roles of dutiful wife, mother and homemaker were glamorised in a range of women’s magazines, yet the reality was dull and isolating for most women
A lack of nursery’s restricted women to part time work
Marriage also brought dependency on the husband in many ways:
- 1946 National Insurance Act
- Women’s work in the home wasn’t recognised in divorce proceedings
A number of factors began to change this dependant status:
- 1969 Divorce Reform Act
- 1970 Martial Proceedings and Property Act
- 1967 Family Planning Act
- 1967 Abortion Act

Question 39

Women in the 1910s

Question 40

Women in the 1920s

Question 41

Women in the 1930s

Question 42

Women in the 1940s

Question 43

Women in the 1950s

Question 44

Women in the 1960s

Question 45

Women in the 1970s

Question 46

Early Attitudes Towards Immigration

Answer 46

1914 British Nationality and Status Aliens Act introduced passport to stop wartime espionage
1919 Aliens Act (Amended 1920) meant immigrants had to gain a work permit, had to register with police and maintain lawful behaviour
Many Jews, looking to escape Nazi persecution, emigrated and settled in Britain between 1933 and 1939
- at the start of WW2 there was 300,000 Jews in the country
- they had been selected for their wealth or their skills
- however, there was still a lot of anti-Semitic hostility
Oswald Moseley and the BUF provided a voice for anti-Semitism
In October 1936, the BUF organised a March through East London, a Jewish area
- violence erupted between the immigrants of the area and the BUF members

Question 47

Immigration Following WW1

Answer 47

By the end of WW1, Britain’s black and Asian communities had grown, partly as a result of people being stationed in Britain during the war
Following WW1, there was an increase in white racism
- they felt that black and Asian workers were taking ‘British jobs’
There was widespread discrimination
Immigrants worked to defend and extend their rights
After the demobilisation of the British Army, there was an explosion of racist violence
Unemployed white Britons attacked back and Asian people, as they considered them to be foreign and therefore not entitled to jobs in Britain
The unions backed the white workers
They fought for the ‘right’ of white workers to take the jobs of ‘coloured’ workers
NUS campaigns led to 2 laws which places all black and Asian people under the threat on deportation:
- 1919 Alines Order Act
-n 1925 Special Restrictions Act

Question 48

Immigration Rates, Wage Rates and Attitudes to the Change

Answer 48

As well as violence and threats of deportation, wage rates were weighted vin favour of white workers
- for example, in 1919 Asian chefs were paid £5 a month, while white chefs were paid £20 a month
Racist action continued throughout the 19830’s, particularly in areas of economic depression
There were very few non-white Britons before the 1950s and the only contact the majority of people had with black people was through photographs
Many white Britons felt superior to other races
- it was seen that there was no ‘colour problem’ outside of London, Newcastle, Hull and Liverpool
- these were the areas that had immigrants from WW1
- the migrants faced racial prejudice
There were several riots in 1919, fuelled by unemployed men
This led to the 1925 Special Restriction Act
Due to a popular pressure, Indian resistants were allowed to apply to the Home Office for a certificate which revoked their alien status