Breast Flashcards
1
Q
The breast is a modified
A
sweat gland from mammary ridges
2
Q
The breast lies in the
A
subcutaneous tissue between the 2nd and 6th ribs
3
Q
Medially the breast reaches
A
the lateral border of the sternum
4
Q
Laterally the breast reaches
A
the posterior axillary line
5
Q
The breast lies on
A
pectoralis major serratus anterior and pectoral fascia
6
Q
The breast is divided
A
into four quadrants a central area and an axillary tail
7
Q
The axillary tail is
A
a prolongation of breast tissue in the upper outer quadrant
8
Q
The breast is formed
A
of 15 to 20 lobes each with a lactiferous duct
9
Q
Each lobe is divided
A
into 20 to 40 lobules containing alveoli
10
Q
Lobules are drained
A
by ductules into the lactiferous ducts
11
Q
Cooper’s ligaments are
A
fibrous tissue ligaments supporting the breast
12
Q
Cooper’s ligaments attach
A
radially from the pectoral fascia to the skin
13
Q
The internal mammary artery
A
perforates the intercostal spaces to supply the breast
14
Q
The lateral thoracic artery
A
is a branch of the axillary artery
15
Q
The breast is drained
A
by the axillary internal mammary and intercostal veins
16
Q
Intercostal veins communicate
A
with the vertebral venous plexus allowing metastasis
17
Q
Breast lymphatics are divided
A
into intramammary and extramammary drainage
18
Q
Intramammary lymphatics drain
A
into the subareolar lymphatic plexus of Sappy
19
Q
Subareolar lymphatics drain
A
into the submammary pectoral lymphatic plexus
20
Q
Peau d’orange occurs
A
due to infiltration of intramammary lymphatics by malignancy
21
Q
Extramammary lymphatics drain
A
into axillary internal mammary and intercostal nodes
22
Q
Axillary lymph nodes receive
A
75% of breast lymph drainage
23
Q
Axillary lymph nodes contain
A
about 35 nodes
24
Q
Axillary lymph nodes are
A
arranged into anterior posterior medial lateral central and apical groups
25
The apical group receives
lymph from all other axillary nodes
26
Axillary lymph nodes are classified
into three levels by the pectoralis minor muscle
27
Level I nodes are
below the lower border of pectoralis minor
28
Level II nodes are
behind pectoralis minor and include central nodes
29
Level III nodes are
above the upper border of pectoralis minor
30
Lymph passes inside the axilla
from level I to level II to level III
31
Axillary lymph node classification
is important for breast cancer prognosis
32
Negative axillary lymph nodes
indicate a better prognosis than positive nodes
33
Level I involvement
has a better prognosis than level II or III
34
Axillary lymph node involvement
requires chemotherapy after surgery
35
36
Acute lactational mastitis is
inflammation of breast tissue during lactation or late pregnancy
37
The main causative organism
is Staphylococcus aureus
38
Infection can spread
from the mouth of a suckling baby or through the blood
39
Predisposing factors include
nipple cracks milk engorgement and poor hygiene
40
The four stages of acute mastitis
are milk engorgement acute mastitis acute abscess and chronic abscess
41
Breast engorgement occurs
in lactating females with mild fever and breast heaviness
42
Breast engorgement signs include
diffuse enlargement mild tenderness and no acute inflammation
43
Breast engorgement investigations
show normal CBC and engorgement on ultrasound
44
Breast engorgement treatment
is conservative management
45
Acute mastitis symptoms include
severe pain redness and nipple discharge
46
Acute mastitis signs include
high fever severe tenderness and enlarged axillary nodes
47
Acute mastitis investigations
show raised WBCs and edema on ultrasound
48
Acute mastitis treatment
is conservative management
49
50
Acute breast abscess commonly occurs
in lactating females
51
Patients present with
severe throbbing breast pain of short duration
52
Acute breast abscess is associated with
high fever and increasing pain severity
53
Breast examination shows
localized redness pitting edema and severe tenderness
54
Fluctuation in acute breast abscess
might be difficult to elicit
55
Acute breast abscess may have
nipple discharge and tender axillary lymph nodes
56
Diagnostic needle aspiration
reveals pus in acute breast abscess
57
Breast ultrasound is used
in doubtful cases to detect pus
58
Routine lab tests are required
before surgery for acute breast abscess
59
Conservative treatment includes
antibiotics analgesics antipyretics and hot fomentation
60
Breastfeeding management includes
using the healthy breast and gradual emptying of the affected one
61
Needle aspiration under ultrasound
is safe and effective for small abscesses
62
Surgical incision and drainage
is required for breast abscess treatment
63
Early drainage is performed
without waiting for fluctuation
64
Surgical drainage is done
under general anesthesia with antibiotics
65
Incision is made
radially or circumferentially at the most pointing area
66
Sinus forceps is used
to break internal septa and aid drainage
67
A drain is placed
inside the cavity to remove remaining pus
68
69
Chronic breast abscess occurs
due to improper treatment of acute abscess
70
Improper antibiotic use or inadequate drainage
leads to chronic breast abscess
71
Sterile pus inside a chronic abscess
is called antibioma
72
Excessive fibrous tissue formation
causes breast thickening and firmness
73
History of acute abscess and low-grade fever
are symptoms of chronic breast abscess
74
A mild painful breast mass
is a common symptom of chronic breast abscess
75
Skin and nipple retraction
may occur due to fibrosis
76
A firm to hard breast mass
may be fixed within the breast or to the skin
77
Axillary lymph nodes
may be enlarged mild tender and firm
78
CBC in chronic breast abscess
shows leukocytosis
79
Breast ultrasound
confirms chronic abscess
80
Needle aspiration in chronic abscess
reveals little pus
81
Treatment of chronic breast abscess
is excision of the abscess with its fibrous wall
82
Duct ectasia is also called
plasma cell mastitis
83
Cause of duct ectasia
is unknown but possibly autoimmune
84
Chronic inflammation and plasma cell infiltration
cause duct dilatation and fibrosis
85
Duct ectasia leads to
stasis recurrent infection and discharge
86
Duct ectasia may be
asymptomatic
87
Nipple discharge in duct ectasia
may be unilateral or bilateral
88
Types of nipple discharge
include serous yellowish or brownish fluid
89
Nipple retraction in duct ectasia
occurs due to duct fibrosis
90
A firm breast mass in duct ectasia
occurs due to fibrosis
91
Recurrent inflammation or chronic abscess
may occur in duct ectasia
92
Nipple discharge in duct ectasia
may be evident or appear on squeezing
93
A retro-areolar firm mass
has restricted mobility and ill-defined edges
94
Duct ectasia may mimic
malignancy
95
Culture and sensitivity
is done from nipple discharge
96
Ultrasound and mammography
are used to exclude malignancy
97
Conservative treatment with antibiotics
is used in young females
98
Major duct excision
is done if conservative treatment fails
99
A circum-areolar incision
is made for major duct excision
100
Areolar skin flaps
are elevated during duct excision
101
Major ducts deep to the areola
are dissected and clamped
102
The whole ducts
are divided and ligated proximally
103
Closure after duct excision
is done with a drain
104
105
Fibrocystic disease is also called
fibroadenosis
106
The exact cause of fibroadenosis
is unknown
107
Fibroadenosis is thought to be due to
exaggeration of normal physiological breast changes
108
Fibrocystic disease can be
unilateral or bilateral
109
The upper lateral quadrant
is the most affected site in fibroadenosis
110
Adenosis in fibroadenosis
means increased number of breast alveoli
111
Epitheliosis in fibroadenosis
means hyperplasia of small duct epithelium
112
Fibrosis in fibroadenosis
means increased fibrous tissue around ducts and alveoli
113
Cyst formation in fibroadenosis
occurs due to duct obstruction by fibrosis
114
Fibrocystic disease is commonly
bilateral
115
Fibrocystic disease may be
asymptomatic and discovered accidentally
116
Painful nodularity
is the most common symptom of fibroadenosis
117
Breast pain in fibroadenosis
is more severe during menstruation
118
Nipple discharge in fibroadenosis
may be serous or brownish unilateral or bilateral
119
Fine nodularity of the breast
is a common finding in fibroadenosis
120
A cystic swelling
may be felt in fibroadenosis
121
Ultrasound and mammography
are done to exclude malignancy in old patients
122
Cysts in fibroadenosis
can be aspirated under ultrasound guidance
123
Suspicious nodules
require FNAC or Tru-cut biopsy
124
Reassurance
is the first step in fibroadenosis treatment
125
Large cysts or suspicious masses
require excision under general anesthesia
126
Analgesics
are used for cyclic pain in fibroadenosis
127
Prolactin inhibitors
may give good results in fibroadenosis treatment
128
Breast neoplasms can be
benign or malignant
129
Benign breast tumors include
duct papilloma and fibroadenoma
130
Malignant breast tumors include
duct carcinoma lobular carcinoma and Paget’s disease
131
Duct papilloma arises from
epithelium of major ducts near the nipple
132
The most common cause of nipple bleeding
is duct papilloma
133
Duct papilloma is common in
young females
134
Duct papilloma shows
hyperplasia of duct epithelium with a vascular core
135
A red nodule inside the duct
is a macroscopic feature of duct papilloma
136
The most common symptom of duct papilloma
is unilateral bleeding per nipple
137
A palpable mass in duct papilloma
is less common
138
Breast contour and skin
remain normal in duct papilloma
139
Squeezing the nipple in duct papilloma
reveals blood from one or more duct orifice
140
Retro-areolar swelling in duct papilloma
may be due to accumulated blood or a mass
141
Axillary lymph nodes
are not palpable in duct papilloma
142
Blood from the nipple
is sent for cytology and culture
143
Ductography in duct papilloma
may show a filling defect
144
Treatment of duct papilloma
is microdochectomy
145
Microdochectomy involves
excision of the affected duct under guidance
146
Fibroadenoma is
the most common breast tumor in young females
147
Fibroadenoma arises from
both fibrous and glandular tissue
148
The commonest type of fibroadenoma
is peri-canalicular (hard fibroadenoma)
149
Soft fibroadenoma is also called
intra-canalicular fibroadenoma
150
Hard fibroadenoma contains
excess fibrous tissue with little glandular tissue
151
Soft fibroadenoma contains
excess glandular tissue with little fibrous tissue
152
Fibroadenoma can be
solitary or multiple
153
Hard fibroadenoma is
very firm in consistency
154
Soft fibroadenoma is
less firm in consistency
155
Fibroadenoma is well capsulated
with a true and a false capsule
156
Fibroadenoma is freely mobile
and not attached to skin or surrounding structures
157
On cut section fibroadenoma
is whitish in color
158
A painless lump in the breast
is a common symptom of fibroadenoma
159
Fibroadenoma is called a breast mouse
due to its mobility
160
Axillary lymph nodes
are not palpable in fibroadenoma
161
Fibroadenoma is mainly diagnosed
clinically
162
Ultrasound
is used to evaluate fibroadenoma and detect other masses
163
Mammography in fibroadenoma
is done for cancer screening in older females
164
Benign mass criteria in fibroadenoma
include well-defined capsule and no malignancy signs
165
Fibroadenoma treatment includes
excision and histopathology
166
Phyllodes tumor resembles
a large malignant sarcoma
167
Phyllodes tumor shows
a leaf-like pattern when sectioned
168
Phyllodes tumor can have
epithelial cyst-like spaces microscopically
169
A small phyllodes tumor
shows rapid growth
170
A huge phyllodes tumor
may ulcerate but does not attach to skin
171
Axillary lymph nodes
are not involved in phyllodes tumor
172
Phyllodes tumor is investigated
like fibroadenoma
173
Treatment of phyllodes tumor
is complete excision with histopathology
174
Wide local excision
is required for phyllodes tumors
175
Large phyllodes tumors
may require breast reconstruction
176
Recent studies suggest
phyllodes tumors may turn malignant
177
178
Breast cancer
is the most common cancer in women
179
The incidence of breast cancer
increases with age
180
The median age for breast cancer
is 60 years
181
5-10% of breast cancers
have an autosomal inheritance pattern
182
Family history of breast cancer
increases the risk
183
BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes
account for 4% of all breast cancers
184
P53 suppressor gene
is involved in breast cancer development
185
Breast cancer risk increases
after menopause
186
Nulliparous women
have a higher breast cancer risk
187
A longer time between menarche and first pregnancy
increases breast cancer risk
188
Obesity increases breast cancer risk
due to conversion of steroids to estradiol
189
Pre-cancerous breast lesions
include duct papilloma and duct hyperplasia
190
Duct carcinoma
arises from duct epithelium
191
Duct carcinoma in-situ
is a non-invasive breast cancer
192
Invasive duct carcinoma
is the most common type of breast cancer
193
Lobular carcinoma
arises from breast lobules and is often multicentric
194
Lobular carcinoma in-situ
is non-invasive and multi-centric
195
Invasive lobular carcinoma
crosses the basement membrane
196
Paget’s disease of the nipple
is an intra-duct carcinoma
197
Paget’s disease spreads
from the ducts to the nipple and deeper breast tissue
198
Microscopically Paget’s disease
shows Paget cells and round cell infiltration
199
The most common site of breast cancer
is the upper outer quadrant
200
Schirrhus carcinoma
is the most common type of breast cancer
201
Schirrhus carcinoma is hard
due to increased fibrous tissue
202
Schirrhus carcinoma is
grayish-white with a concave cut surface
203
Encephaloid carcinoma
is larger and softer than schirrhus carcinoma
204
Inflammatory carcinoma
is the most malignant type of breast cancer
205
Inflammatory carcinoma resembles
severe mastitis
206
Inflammatory carcinoma
is common in pregnancy
207
Paget’s disease may present
with nipple erosion or an underlying mass
208
Breast cancer spreads locally
by increasing in size and fixation
209
Fixation to Cooper’s ligaments
causes skin dimpling
210
Infiltration of major ducts
causes nipple retraction
211
Infiltration to the skin
leads to nodules and ulceration
212
Cancer en cuirass
is dense skin infiltration with multiple nodules
213
Peau d’orange
results from intra-mammary lymphatic obstruction
214
Axillary lymph nodes
are the most common site of lymphatic spread
215
Lymph node spread
follows level I then II then III
216
Lymph node involvement
worsens prognosis
217
Lymph node-negative patients
have a better prognosis than lymph node-positive patients
218
Lymph node-positive patients
need chemotherapy and radiotherapy
219
Internal mammary lymph nodes
are less commonly affected
220
Breast cancer spreads through blood
to bones liver brain and lungs
221
The most common blood spread site
is bones including lumbar vertebrae ribs and femur
222
223
Female patient with breast cancer
usually presents with a breast lump
224
Breast lump may be
accidentally discovered painless or cause stitching pain
225
Breast cancer may present
with or without skin manifestations
226
Axillary lymph node involvement
may present as an axillary lump
227
Inflammatory carcinoma
presents with painful breast swelling
228
Bleeding per nipple
may indicate underlying malignancy
229
Nipple ulceration or retraction
can be a sign of breast cancer
230
Blood metastases may present
with localized bone pain or pathological fracture
231
Breast cancer inspection includes
assessing size symmetry skin nipples areolae and masses
232
Asymmetrical breast enlargement
may indicate malignancy
233
Nipple retraction erosion or dimpling
are suspicious signs of breast cancer
234
Peau d’orange
is mainly seen in the lower breast
235
Skin nodules or visible masses
may indicate advanced breast cancer
236
A malignant breast mass
is hard in consistency
237
A malignant breast mass
may be fixed to the skin pectoral fascia or breast tissue
238
Malignant breast masses
have ill-defined edges and irregular outlines
239
Axillary and supraclavicular lymph nodes
are hard enlarged and fixed if involved
240
241
Paget’s disease
accounts for 1% of breast cancers
242
Paget’s disease may present
with pricking pain in the nipple
243
Paget’s disease may mimic
eczema of the nipple
244
Paget’s disease usually
has no palpable mass
245
Paget’s disease is
unilateral with well-defined edges
246
Paget’s disease shows
nipple erosion with no itching oozing or vesicles
247
Paget’s disease does not
respond to anti-allergic treatment
248
Eczema is usually
bilateral with ill-defined edges
249
Eczema presents
with itching oozing and vesicles
250
Eczema does not
cause nipple erosion
251
Eczema responds
to anti-allergic treatment
252
Eczema does not
present with an underlying mass
253
Investigations for breast cancer
should be done in any female with a suspicious lump
254
Triple assessment includes
radiological pathological and laboratory evaluation
255
Bilateral mammography
is a plain X-ray taken in two views
256
Mammography detects
microcalcifications hyperdensity and irregular outlines
257
Mammography can identify
occult masses and enlarged axillary lymph nodes
258
Breast ultrasound
helps determine lump size site and number
259
Ultrasound distinguishes
between cystic and solid masses
260
BIRADS category
classifies breast imaging results
261
MRI is the most
accurate but expensive imaging modality
262
MRI is useful
in young patients with dense breasts
263
MRI malignant features
include irregular hyperdense hypervascular masses
264
Radiological staging includes
abdominal ultrasound bone scans PET scan and chest X-ray
265
Pathological diagnosis
is essential for confirming malignancy
266
Fine needle aspiration cytology
examines cells but cannot determine invasiveness
267
Tru-cut needle biopsy
removes a core of tissue for more accuracy
268
Excision biopsy
removes the mass for histopathological evaluation
269
Frozen section biopsy
provides immediate results during surgery
270
Hormone receptor testing
includes estrogen progesterone and HER2/neu receptors
271
Triple-negative breast cancer
lacks ER PR and HER2 receptors
272
HER2 overexpression
is linked to more aggressive tumors
273
Sentinel lymph node biopsy
assesses the first lymph node in drainage pathway
274
Sentinel lymph node biopsy
helps decide the need for axillary dissection
275
Laboratory tests include
routine pre-operative blood tests
276
Tumor marker CA 15-3
is used for monitoring treatment and recurrence
277
CEA tumor marker
is less commonly used in breast cancer
278
TNM staging system
is the most commonly used classification
279
Tis stage
indicates carcinoma in situ or Paget’s disease
280
T1 stage
refers to tumors 2 cm or smaller
281
T2 stage
refers to tumors larger than 2 cm but less than 5 cm
282
T3 stage
includes tumors larger than 5 cm
283
T4 stage
includes tumors of any size with skin or pectoral fixation
284
N0 stage
indicates no palpable lymph nodes
285
N1 stage
includes mobile lymph nodes in the axilla
286
N2 stage
includes fixed axillary lymph nodes
287
N3 stage
involves palpable supraclavicular lymph nodes
288
M0 stage
means no distant metastases
289
M1 stage
indicates metastases in distant organs
290
Stage I
includes T1 N0
291
Stage IIa
includes T1 N1 T2 N0 and T0 N1
292
Stage IIb
includes T2 N1 and T3 N0
293
Stage III
includes any N2 or any T3 except T3 N0
294
Stage IV
includes any N3 any T4 or any M1
295
Early-stage breast cancer
includes T2 N1 M0 or less
296
Late-stage breast cancer
is any stage beyond T2 N1 M0
297
Manchester Stage I
includes a mobile tumor with free axilla
298
Manchester Stage II
includes a mobile tumor with mobile lymph nodes
299
Manchester Stage III
includes a fixed tumor with fixed lymph nodes
300
Manchester Stage IV
includes metastatic disease with enlarged supraclavicular lymph nodes
301
Stages I and II
are considered early breast cancer
302
Stages III and IV
are considered late breast cancer
303
Prognosis worsens
with increasing age and pregnancy
304
Mastitis carcinomatosis
is associated with a poor prognosis
305
Poorly differentiated tumors
have the worst prognosis
306
Positive lymph nodes
indicate a worse prognosis than negative lymph nodes
307
Advanced tumor stage
is associated with a worse prognosis
308
ER/PR-positive tumors
have a better prognosis than ER/PR-negative tumors
309
Lymph node score
is based on the number of affected lymph nodes
310
Tumor grade
is scored from 1 to 3
311
Tumor size
is calculated as size in cm multiplied by 0.2
312
Excellent prognosis
is indicated by a score of ≤ 2.4 with a 94% five-year survival rate
313
Good prognosis
is indicated by a score of ≤ 3.4 with an 83% five-year survival rate
314
Moderate prognosis
is indicated by a score of 4.4 to 5.5 with a 30–70% survival rate
315
Poor prognosis
is indicated by a score > 5.5 with a 20% survival rate
316
Early-stage breast cancer
includes T2 N1 M0 or Stage I and II
317
The goal of treatment
is to cure and prevent metastasis
318
Surgical options
include conservative breast surgery and modified radical mastectomy
319
Adjuvant therapy
includes radiotherapy chemotherapy and anti-estrogen therapy
320
Neoadjuvant therapy
involves preoperative radio or chemotherapy
321
Conservative breast surgery
is indicated for early-stage breast cancer
322
Tumor size for CBS
should be 5 cm or less
323
CBS is not suitable
for centrally located or lobular carcinomas
324
Adequate breast size
is required for CBS
325
Patient compliance
is necessary for CBS follow-up
326
Radiotherapy facilities
must be available for CBS
327
Wide local excision
involves tumor removal with a safety margin
328
TART surgery
includes tumorectomy axillary clearance and radiotherapy
329
QUART surgery
includes quadrantectomy axillary clearance and radiotherapy
330
Modified radical mastectomy
is an option for early-stage breast cancer patients unsuitable for CBS
331
Large tumor relative to breast size
is an indication for modified radical mastectomy
332
Extensive mammographic calcifications
require modified radical mastectomy
333
Multicentric disease
is an indication for modified radical mastectomy
334
Poorly differentiated tumors
require modified radical mastectomy
335
Postoperative radiotherapy contraindications
may require mastectomy
336
Patient preference
is a reason for choosing mastectomy
337
Adjuvant therapy
reduces recurrence and metastasis risk
338
Radiotherapy
is used postoperatively in breast cancer treatment
339
Chemotherapy
is used in patients with positive axillary lymph nodes
340
Common chemotherapy drugs
include 5-Fluorouracil Cyclophosphamide and Methotrexate
341
Tamoxifen
is used for ER-positive patients at 20 mg/day for five years
342
Adjuvant therapy planning
depends on tumor size lymph node status and hormone receptor status
343
Tumor <1 cm
requires no chemotherapy but may need tamoxifen
344
Tumor >1 cm
requires combination chemotherapy and tamoxifen
345
Node-positive tumors
require both chemotherapy and tamoxifen
346
In advanced breast cancer
Stages III and IV require neo-adjuvant therapy for down-staging followed by surgery
347
Palliative mastectomy
is performed as a simple mastectomy in locally advanced cases
348
Radiotherapy and chemotherapy
are used for palliative purposes in advanced breast cancer
349
Favorable prognosis in breast cancer
includes early-stage disease and negative axillary lymph nodes
350
No blood metastases
indicate a better breast cancer prognosis
351
Estrogen receptor-positive tumors
have a better prognosis as they respond to anti-estrogens
352
Well-differentiated tumors
have a better prognosis than undifferentiated tumors
353
Differential diagnosis of a hard breast lump
includes breast cancer and organized hematoma with trauma history
354
Hard fibroadenoma
is a differential diagnosis often in young patients with a freely mobile lump
355
Tuberculosis of the breast
can cause a hard lump with calcification and a history of TB
356
Duct ectasia
can form a hard mass due to dense fibrosis with a history of long-term nipple discharge
357
Chronic abscess and antibioma
can present as a hard lump in the breast
358
Traumatic fat necrosis
is a possible differential diagnosis of a hard breast lump
359
Causes of nipple bleeding
include trauma and duct papilloma
360
Duct ectasia and duct carcinoma
can cause nipple bleeding
361
Fibroadenosis
causes serous nipple discharge
362
Duct ectasia
causes yellowish or brownish creamy nipple discharge
363
Breast abscess
causes purulent nipple discharge
364
Galactorrhea
causes milk secretion from the nipple
365
Massive unilateral breast swelling
can be caused by a phylloides tumor
366
Diffuse hypertrophy
is a possible cause of massive unilateral breast swelling
367
Giant fibroadenoma
can cause massive unilateral swelling of the breast
368
Gynecomastia
is an enlargement of male breast tissue due to hormonal imbalance
369
Common causes of gynecomastia
include idiopathic origin and obesity
370
Testicular or adrenal tumors
can lead to gynecomastia
371
Liver disease and hyperthyroidism
can contribute to gynecomastia
372
Hypogonadism and kidney failure
are possible causes of gynecomastia
373
Certain drugs
can cause gynecomastia including anabolic steroids and estrogens
374
Finasteride and spironolactone
can contribute to gynecomastia development
375
Cimetidine and diazepam
are medications that may cause gynecomastia
376
Metronidazole and digoxin
are drugs associated with gynecomastia
377
Gynecomastia can occur
at birth due to retained maternal hormones
378
Puberty
is a common time for gynecomastia due to hormonal imbalance
379
Gynecomastia in adults
can be caused by various medical conditions or medications
380
Clinical features of gynecomastia
include excess localized breast fat and glandular tissue development
381
Retroareolar discoid firm tissue
is characteristic of gynecomastia
382
Gynecomastia
may involve excess breast skin and can be unilateral or bilateral
383
Gynecomastia diagnosis
requires history and clinical examination
384
Radiological tests
like ultrasound and mammography are used in suspicious cases
385
Hormonal assessment
is done through laboratory investigations
386
Mild gynecomastia
is managed with follow-up and observation
387
Marked gynecomastia
may require treatment for cosmetic purposes
388
Liposuction
is used for gynecomastia due to excess fatty tissue
389
Excision surgery
is recommended for glandular tissue removal or excess skin correction
