Brain Training

Question 1

Describe the attentional blink task used to assess perceptual learning in Seitz and Watanabe’s (2005) study

Answer 1

Initial task: Ps picked out 2 white letters amongst black letters appearing in a stream surrounded by random dots; exposure phase: the dots moved in different directions; repeat of original task: had to report which direction the dots were moving at either 5 or 10% coherent motion

Question 2

What results were found in the perceptual learning task and what does this suggest?

Answer 2

With training Ps were much better at detecting the direction for 10% trials but there was no difference between pre and post exposure for 5% trials, so doesn’t generalise to all motion; shows through exposure we can tune to a particular type of motion even at an implicit level

Question 3

What did Robertson’s (2007) serial reaction time task reveal about motor learning?

Answer 3

After training by responding to a consistently presented visual pattern, RT becomes faster, but slows down again after a random pattern is thrown in; doesn’t generalise to all patterns

Question 4

In a physical conditioning study with elderly people, half were assigned to an aerobic training group and the rest to a control group just stretching and toning. What was found?

Answer 4

An hour of aerobic training a day for several days a week can last from several months to years

Question 5

What has physical conditioning been shown to generalise to, and what other factors may be driving the effects?

Answer 5

Positively influences cognition; same effect for normal/cognitively impaired; larger effects on executive processes; studies with more women generally show larger effects; but motivation differences/placebo effect may be confounding

Question 6

In Dux et al.’s (2009) study, subjects were trained on non- overlapping single and dual-task trials in 8 sessions /approx 4000 trials, and scanned pre, mid and post training. What was found?

Answer 6

RT time became faster in both audio and visual trials with training; the difference between single and dual tasks also became smaller, suggesting multitasking improves with training

Question 7

To test the serial bottleneck theory, Dux et al. (2009) examined the temporal profile of activity in the left IFJ pre and post single and dual training. What was found both behaviourally and in the fMRI scanner?

Answer 7

The difference in response selection between single and dual behaviour became smaller; Posterior lateral PFC showed a large activation difference between single and dual, which reduced during training, and showed no difference at post training

Question 8

What conclusion was drawn in Dux’s et al.’s (2009) study?

Answer 8

Left inferior frontal junction tracks improvements in multi-tasking performance with training

Question 9

Filmer et al. (2013) wanted to know if left IFJ processing is required for sensory-motor training benefits to occur. How did they measure this?

Answer 9

They stimulated the IFJ using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and measured Ps response to training

Question 10

What does tDCS involve?

Answer 10

A small electric current passes through the brain between electrodes placed on the scalp; depending on the direction of the current this stimulation can transiently excite (anodal) or inhibit (cathodal) activity in a brain region

Question 11

In Filmer et al.’s (2013) study, 2 groups completed anodal, cathodal, or sham sessions. What was manipulated?

Answer 11

Multi-task demand: 2AFC vs. 6AFC blocks in each session, with 3 different time points: pre, immediately after and 20 mins after tDCS

Question 12

What was found in the 6AFC condition in Filmer et al.’s study, and what does this suggest?

Answer 12

RT improved with training in the right IFJ in all conditions; but only sham condition showed training effects in the left IFJ; The left IFJ influences training but not the right; more effect with the harder task (compared to 2AFC)

Question 13

When Filmer et al. replicated their study by swapping the electrode configuration (anode over left; cathode over right), what occurred?

Answer 13

It showed the same results; anode stimulation in the left IFJ showed no learning

Question 14

What does Filmer et al.’s converging evidence from different techniques suggest about cognitive training?

Answer 14

Left IFJ appears to be involved in response-selection pre- and post training; stimulation of left IFJ with tDCS prevents response-selection training effects

Question 15

How does training change the brain?

Answer 15

Functional brain activation can show: decrease; increase; redistribution; or reorganization

Question 16

What’s the difference between redistribution and reorganization of functional brain activation?

Answer 16

Redistribution: same brain regions involved with different activation strengths; reorganization: different/new regions become activated

Question 17

Decreases in activation are shown when “scaffolding” regions drop out or sharpening of neural responses occur within a brain region. Why may this occur in the PFC after training?

Answer 17

It’s required to coordinate things at first, but isn’t needed as much after training as it becomes more automatic; less activity means it’s becoming more efficient

Question 18

Garner and Dux (2015) examined how individual differences in multi-tasking training outcomes correlated with changes in task representations (MPVA) between tasks across training. What did they find?

Answer 18

No correlation for redistribution; divergence (sharpening) occurred – bigger multitasking improvements with training linked to larger decoding changes

Question 19

In Garner and Dux’s study, controls were trained in a visual search task, and the training group completed training in single sound and shape tasks, and a multi-task. What were the results?

Answer 19

Large multitasking costs were observed; improved performance across training; multitasking improvements were greater for the training group than control group

Question 20

When looking at individual’s to see how much they improved on multitask training, what was found compared to controls?

Answer 20

They showed the greatest separation in coding (in MPFC and basal ganglia); more difference in patterns/representations so less interference; they showed redistribution/sharpening; more specialized brain networks

Question 21

Activations in brain regions have been shown to increase with training; when there’s a recruitment of brain regions, or increased reliance on a particular region, what is this an example of?

Answer 21

Reorganisation; greater use of strategy

Question 22

As well as functional changes in the brain, structural changes can also occur. When does this happen? Give an example

Answer 22

When there’s an increase in the volume of grey matter; doesn’t tell you how it changes, only that it does; e.g. practicing juggling changes the structure

Question 23

What has brain training been suggested to transfer to?

Answer 23

Improvement of attention, memory and intelligence; can treat a range of psychiatric and neurological conditions

Question 24

In Jaeggi et al.’s (2008) study, they had Ps train in a dual task where they had to report whether a letter or square appeared 2 spaces ago. What did they find?

Answer 24

Training improved their IQ

Question 25

Redick et al. (2013) replicated Jaeggi et al.’s study by using a wide range of measures, large sample size, and a diverse group of Ps with varying cognitive ability. What other things did they do differently?

Answer 25

Used a latent variable approach to establish the specific cognitive approaches and factors influenced by training; assessed performance at a range of different times; active control group (placebo, visual search) rather than one with no training at all

Question 26

What were the results of Redick’s study?

Answer 26

There was no evidence of general training benefit; there was an improvement at the task but not in IQ; Jaeggi’s findings not replicated

Question 27

What did Owen et al. find in regards to training transfer with a sample group of 10, 000 Ps?

Answer 27

No evidence of a generalised brain training benefit

Question 28

List two other settings in which training transfer has been found

Answer 28

Video game training; working memory training in ADHD