Brain and Neuropsychology Flashcards
autonomic nervous system
the system that operates involuntarily - 2 main divisions, sympathetic and parasympathetic
central nervous system
made up of brain and spinal cord - where all complex commands and decisions are made
nervous system
consists of central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
peripheral nervous system
transmits info about voluntary movements, communicating between cns and the rest of the body
somatic nervous system
transmits info from sense organs to cns, recieves info from cns that directs the muscle to act
fight or flight
immediate physiological response when confronted by a threatening situation
james lange theory
suggests that our experiences of physiological changes comes first, then our brain interprets that as emotion
emotion
a strong feeling or mood that has important motivational properties, driving and individual to behave a certain way
excitatory
some neurotransmitters such as adrenaline generally increase the positive charge of the next neuron, making it more likely to fire
inhibitory
some neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, generally increase the negative charge of the next neuron, making it less likely to fire
neurons
cells that communicate messages through electrical and chemical signals throughout the nervous system - 3 types, sensory, motor and relay
neurotransmitter
a chemical that is released from the synaptic vesicles, which send signals across the synaptic cleft from one neuron to another
synaptic transmission
the process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other, neurons and chemical messages across the gap and separates them
hebbs theory
early theory of ‘plasticity’ in the brain
cerebellum
above the spinal cord, coordinating movement with sensory input, also having a role in cognition
cortex
thin layer of brain tissue, highly folded and complex. ‘you have a smooth brain’ - very rude
localisation
refers to the theory that different brain areas are responsible from specific functions and behaviours
interpretive cortex
an area in the temporal lobe where interpretations of memories are stored
cognitive neuroscience
how mental processes and brain activity are connected
neurological damage
any event, illness or injury, which can result in neuron damage, leading to a loss of function or change in behaviour
ct scan
a computerised tomography scan uses x rays and a computer to create detailed images of the inside of the body, including the brain , resulting in cross sectional pictures
fMRI
magnetic image using radio waves to measure blood oxygen for ‘active’ parts of the brain’
PET scan
allows live brain activity ti be observed
episodic memory
personal events
semantic memory
world knowledge, facts
2 jobs of nervous system
- collect and respond to info in environment
- control working of different organs and cells in body inc. brain
brain
divided into 2 hemispheres, right controls left, left controls right. centre of conscious awareness, decision making
brain stem is..
at the base of the brain, controlling many basic functions e.g. sleep - brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord
spinal cord..
carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body
peripheral nervous system…
support actions of the cns through millions of nerve cells called neurons - divided into ans and sns
automatic nervous system…
acts are involuntary, coordinates vital functions such as breathing, heart rate and digestion. Involved in the body’s response to stress - has 2 parts - sympathetic and parasympathetic
somatic nervous system…
controls voluntary movements of muscles, only exception are reflexes that are not under voluntary control, takes in info from sensory organs
fight or flight stages
- brain detects threat
- sns kicks in
- release of adrenaline
- fight or flight
- once threat has passed, parasympathetic kicks in
james lange theory of emotion
- psychological arousal first - hypothalamus arouses sympathetic ns - adrenaline released leading to fight or flight
- emotion afterwards
brain interprets physiological arousal - no physical changes = no emotion
example of the james lange theory of emotion
meet bear in forest - sympathetic arousal ; muscles tense, hr increases THEN you interpret it as fear
evaluate james lange theory of emotion
- claims physiological responses are necessary for experiencing emotions - research those with paralysis still feel emotion - idea challenged
- opposing theories; others say physiological arousal and emotions can happen at the same time - contradicts james lange
sensory neuron
from pns to cns - long dendrite, short axon
relay neuron
connects sensory to motor. short dendrite, long axon
motor neuron
from cns to muscles/glands, short dendrite, long axon
cell body
nucleus contains DNA
axon
carries signals, covered in myelin sheath which helps and protects
myelin sheath
fatty covering of axon with gaps ( nodes of ranvier ). insulation and speeds up signal
terminal buttons
end of axon, part of synapse
electrical transmission is
how neurons fire
electrical transmission
resting state - negative charge
when firing, the charge inside the cell changed which increase its action potential
the synapse
where neurons communicate with each other; terminal button at presynaptic neuron + synaptic cleft + receptor sites on postsynaptic neuron
release of neurotransmitters
electrical signals causes vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
reuptake of neurotransmitters
neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft attaches to postsynaptic receptor sites. A chemical message turns into an electrical message. Remaining neurotransmitter reabsorbed
excitation and inhibition
excitatory neurotransmitter increases postsynaptic neuron’s charge, more likely to fire.
Inhibitory neurotransmitter increases negative charge, less likely to fire
summation
more excitatory than inhibitory signals means that neurons fire, creating electrical impulse
hebb’s theory key points
- the brain is plastic
- the brain adapts
- learning produces and engram
- cell assemblies and neuronal growth
hebb - the brain is plastic
synaptic connections become stronger the more they are used . Brain can change and develop
hebb - the brain adapts
brain changes in response to new experiences, at any age
learning produces and engram
learning leaves a trace called an engram. This can be permanent if we rehearse learning
cell assemblies and neuronal growth
groups of neurons that fire together, neuronal growth occurs as cell assemblies rewire
evaluate hebb’s theory
+ hebb’s theory is scientific so its objective basis gives theory validity and credibility
+ real world application, stimulating school environment can increase neuronal growth
- reductionist, reducing learning to neuronal level, ignoring high levels e.g. Piaget’s idea that accommodation is a key part of learning
frontal lobe
contains motor area at the front of the brain- controls thinking, planning and the motor area controls movement
parietal lobe
contains somatosensory area . Behind frontal lobe . Where sensations are processed
occipital lobe
contains visual area . At the back of the brain, controls vision
temporal lobe
contains auditory/language area. Behind frontal lobe, below parietal lobe. Auditory area, related to speech and learning
cerebellum
receives info from the spinal cord and brain. Coordinates movement and balance ; attention and language too
localisation of function
specific brain areas do specific jobs
motor area - lof
damage to left hemisphere affects the right side of the body and visa versa
somatosensory area - lof
most sensitive body parts take up the most ‘space’ - damage means less ability to feel pain
visual area- lof
damage to the left hemisphere affects the right visual field of each eye and visa versa
auditory area - lof
damage can lead to deafness
language area: usually in left hemisphere only
Broca’s area: damage leads to difficulty with remembering and forming words
Wernicke’s area: damage leads to difficulty understanding and producing meaningful speech
penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex - aim
to investigate the function of the temporal lobe using the Montreal procedure
penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex - method
operated on patients with severe epilepsy
Could stimulate area of the brain in a conscious patient who reported the experience
penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex - results
temporal lobe stimulation; experiences and feelings associated with those experiences including deja vu
penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex - conclusion
area of the brain called interpretive cortex stores the personal meaning of previous events
penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex - evaluation
+ precise method: could stimulate the exact same area of the brain and have verbal reports from awake patients
- unusual sample: all participants had severe epilepsy so their behaviour may not reflect people with normal brains
cognitive neuroscience
aims to create a detailed map of localised functions in the brain
structure & function of the brain relates to behaviour
frontal lobe and motor area: movement
Temporal lobe and amygdala: processes emotion and agression
structure and function of the brain relates to cognition
different types of memory are in different areas of the brain
cognitive neuroscience and mental illness
low serotonin affects thinking and behaviour
neurological damage
the importance of localisation: damage to specific areas of the brain affect certain areas and therefore behaviours
the effects of a stroke
when the brain is deprived of oxygen, areas of the brain die leading to effects on behaviours, unless other area take over the localised functions damaged
effects of neurological damage on motor ability
damage to motor area can lead to problems with fine and complex movement.
effects of neurological damage on behaviour
Broca’s aphasia; problems producing speech
Wernicke’s aphasia; problems understanding speech
Tulving’s gold memory study - aim
to investigate if episodic memories produce different blood flow patterns to semantic ones
Tulving’s gold memory study - method
6 participants injected with radioactive gold
Repeated measures used 4 episodic memories and 4 semantic memory trails
Monitored blood flow using PET scan
Tulving’s gold memory study - results
different blood flow in 3/6 participants
Semantic memories in posterior cortex
Episodic memories in frontal cortex
Tulving’s gold memory study - conclusion
episodic and semantic memories are both localised.
Memory has a biological basis
Tulving’s gold memory study - evaluation
+ objective evidence - evidence from brain scans is hard to face, producing unbiased evidence
- problems with sample ( only 6 p’ts Tulving and conclusion based on just 3 of the p’ts
What is a CT scan
large doughnut shaped scanner that rotates. Takes a lot of X rays of the brain which are combined to give a detailed picture
What is a PET scan
Patient injected with radioactive glucose. Brain activity shown on computer screen
what is an FMRI scan
Measures changed in blood oxygen levels. Displayed as a 3D computer image
Evaluate CT scans
+ Quality is higher than traditional X rays
- high levels of radiation and only produces still images
evaluate PET scans
+ shows brain in action and localisation of function
- Expensive and may be unethical because of radiation
Evaluate fMRI
+ superior as produces clear images without use of radiation
- expensive and have to stay completely still
