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Booklet 2 Flashcards

Sampling, experimental design, ethics

1
Q

What is an aim?

A

Sets out why a researcher is doing the research/what they are interested in finding
Usually begins to investigate/to discover etc

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2
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A precise and testable statement that suggests what the result of the research will be

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3
Q

What 3 things should a hypothesis include?

A

A statement, not a question
All conditions of IV
Operationalised DV

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4
Q

What are the types of hypothesis?

A

Experimental/research/alternative- predicts what you think you will observe (directional or non directional)
Null- predicts a significant difference or relationship will not be found

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5
Q

What is a one-tailed/directional hypothesis and when is it used?

A

States there will be a change in relationship and what direction the relationship will go
Used when previous research indicates what you might find

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6
Q

What is a two-tailed/non-directional hypothesis?

A

States there will be a change but not the direction the change will be

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7
Q

How do you write a directional hypothesis?

A

Participants in condition A (state condition of IV) will (insert direction) compared to participants in condition B (state condition of IV)

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8
Q

How do you write a non-directional hypothesis?

A

There will be a difference between (insert operationalised DV) of participants in condition A (insert condition of IV) compared to condition B (insert condition of IV)

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9
Q

What is a sample?

A

A group of people drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation

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10
Q

What is the target population?

A

The group the researcher draws the sample from and wants to be able to generalise the findings to

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11
Q

What does generalise mean?

A

Applying results to a wider population beyond the research participants

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12
Q

What is a representative sample?

A

A sample that closely matches the target population in terms of key variables and characteristics

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13
Q

What is sampling bias?

A

When a sample is compromised of one particular type of person

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14
Q

Describe random sampling

A

Assigning a number to each member of the target population then using a random number generator to draw out people to be in the sample
Gives every member of the target population equal chance of being selected for the sample

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15
Q

Describe opportunity sampling

A

Participants who are freely available and willing selected for sample group
Commonly used by university lecturers involving students in research

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16
Q

Describe volunteer sampling

A

When the researcher posts an advertisement to inform the target population of the aim of their research asking them to take part
A contact number/ email address is given
Research recruits the first participants that show up- however many are needed

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17
Q

Describe stratified sampling

A

Researcher identifies sub groups (strata) of target population and calculates percentage each sub group makes up of the target population
These are then proportionally represented of the sample

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18
Q

Describe systematic sampling

A

A systematic method/rule is chosen eg every 4th person in a list is chosen
Differs from random sampling as there is not an equal chance of selection

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19
Q

Give strengths and limitations of random sampling

A

Strengths- every member of target population has an equal chance of being selected
-unbiased
Limitations- difficult and time consuming
-small sample could be unrepresentative

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20
Q

Give strengths and limitations of opportunity sampling

A

Strengths- convenient, easy, not time consuming
Limitations- unrepresentative as only drawn from one area
-potential for researcher bias

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21
Q

Give strengths and limitations of volunteer sampling

A

Strengths- easy as minimal input from researcher
-participants less likely to withdraw
Limitations- volunteer bias (similar type of person tends to put themselves forwards)

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22
Q

Give strengths and limitations of stratified sampling

A

Strengths- representative sample so can easily generalise findings
Limitations- complete representation not possible
-time consuming
-expensive
-difficult to identify all sub groups

23
Q

Give strengths and limitations of systematic sampling

A

Strengths- low in researcher bias
Limitations- if researcher determines rule they can make it fit their agenda
-can be unrepresentative

24
Q

Counter balancing

A

A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design
Half participants do condition A then B, other half do B then A

25
Demand characteristics
When participants change their behaviour because they have guessed the aim of the research or to show social desirability
26
Participant variables
Differences that occur between participants that may influence the results eg gender, fitness levels
27
Order effects
When the position or order of tasks influences the outcome for example due to practise, boredom or fatigue
28
Random allocation
How researchers divide participants into each experimental condition to reduce bias in the distribution of participant characteristics
29
Describe independent groups
Participants are randomly allocated to one condition of the IV One group undergoes one condition and the other group does the other condition
30
Give strengths of independent groups
Less prone to order effects Participants less likely to guess aim as only do one condition- less demand characteristics Less time consuming- can do both conditions at same time as separate groups
31
Give limitations of independent groups
More prone to influence of participant variables Need more participants as each only does one condition so takes longer and more expensive
32
Describe repeated measures
Participants take part in both conditions of the IV
33
Give strengths of repeated measures
Removes participant variables Need less participants as they do both conditions
34
Give limitations of repeated measures
More prone to order effects Most likely to be effected by demand characteristics as participants likely to guess aim Time consuming as can’t do conditions at same time
35
Describe matched pairs
Participants are matched based on similarities or key characteristics (eg age,gender) believed to influence DV One of pair randomly allocated to condition A and the other to condition B- undertake difference conditions of IV
36
Give strengths of matched pairs
Less prone to order effects Decreases participant variables Less likely to guess aim as only do one condition- less demand characteristics
37
Give limitations of matched pairs
Quite time consuming as must assess and match participants before study Need more participants as each only does one condition
38
How may participant variables be overcome?
Random allocation When participants are distributed between conditions in a random and unbiased way
39
Describe how order effects can be overcome
Counter balancing When participants do conditions in opposing orders eg half do A then B and other half do B then A
40
Deception
Withholding information from the participants or intentionally informing them of the wrong aim/purpose
41
Right to withdraw
Participants can withdraw themselves from the research or their results up until the point of publication
42
Protection from harm
Investigators have a responsibility to protect the participants from physical and psychological harm Risk of harm should be no greater than ordinary life
43
Confidentiality
Participants data should not be disclosed to anyone unless agreed and stored securely Participants should not be identifiable
44
Debrief
All relevant details should be given to participants before and after the study They should be told the true aim and that they can still withdraw their data - particularly important if deception has been used
45
Informed consent
Researchers should give participants sufficient details so they can chose if they wish to take part Parental consent needed for under 16’s and those under the influence of drink/ drugs or otherwise unable to make decisions so cannot give their own consent
46
Privacy
Steps should be taken to ensure the participants daily life isn’t intruded upon, including covert recordings
47
What is the BPS and what do they do?
British Psychological Society Representative body of psychology and psychologists Aims to raise training standards, raise public awareness of psychology, and publishes Code of Ethics Research institutions eg universities have ethics committees which access and approve research to ensure criteria set out by BPS is met
48
Name strategies used to overcome ethical issues
Debriefing Prior general consent Presumptive consent Reasonable attempts to contact participants Ensure data is confidential Terminate research Right to withdraw at any time Only publish necessary details Anonymise information
49
Why is it not always possible to give informed consent and how can this be overcome?
Disclosing real aim to participants may cause demand characteristics, participants may not be aware they are part of research eg natural and field experiments Overcome by: -prior general consent- participants consent to being involved in a study using deception effectively consenting to being deceived -presumptive consent- researcher asks many people from a group similar to the sample whether they would be okay in that situation -retrospective- participants are asked for consent after participating
50
Why may deception be used and how can this be overcome?
Concealing real aim avoids demand characteristics, only used when won’t cause distress/harm Overcome by: -debriefing P’s afterwards, true aim revealed and told what their data will be used for (gives participants chance to withdraw their data)
51
Why may it not be possible to protect participants from harm and how can this be overcome?
Avoiding any form of emotional or psychological harm would prevent most research taking place, some people may be more susceptible to certain triggers Overcome by: -offering counselling -terminating research -cost benefit analysis- committee held before research deciding whether findings outweigh the cost to individuals
52
Why might privacy not always be possible and how can this be overcome?
Intrusive questions may be necessary, hidden cameras to avoid demand characteristics Overcome by: -reassuring participants of confidentiality -debriefing to inform what has been recorded -maintaining anonymity -potential counselling
53
Why isn’t confidentiality always possible and how can this be overcome?
If confederates are present, the participants results cannot be fully concealed Overcome by: -anonymity eg using numbers/initials on case studies -digital files encrypted -paper files locked securely -avoid including irrelevant details that may lead to identification

research methods (6 decks)

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