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Histology > Blood > Flashcards

Blood Flashcards

1
Q

Constituents of blood

A

Cellular component = 44%
Plasma - blood minus the cells and comprises: 56%
• water
• salt and minerals
• plasma proteins (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen)
• hormones, signal molecules
• other clotting factors etc
Serum - plasma minus clotting factors

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2
Q

Lifespan of erythrocytes

A

120 days

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3
Q

Where are erythrocytes produced

A

liver (foetus) and haematopoetic bone marrow of axial skeleton/ long bones (adults)

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4
Q

Structure and size of erythrocytes

A

• enucleated, biconcave discs - 6.5-8.5um in diameter
• major protein in cytoplasm = haemoglobin
• destroyed in liver and spleen
• cell membrane has important endoskeleton attached (major protein- spectrin) to maintain shape

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5
Q

How many erythrocytes per ml of blood

A

4-6 million

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6
Q

3 types of white cell series

A

Granulocytes, agranulocytes and platelets

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7
Q

Types of granulocyte

A

• 40-75% neutrophils
• 5 % eosinophils
• 0.5% basophils

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8
Q

Types of agranulocytes

A

• 20-50% lymphocytes
• 1-5% monocytes

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9
Q

Structure and size of neutrophils

A

• multi-lobed nucleus, granular cytoplasm, 12-14um diameter
• phagocytotic - engulf and destroy bacteria and other foreign macromolecules using the respiratory burst
• mobile and motile cells- circulate in blood and invade tissue spaces
• contain myeloperoxidase- enzyme needed to conduct respiratory burst
• able to operate in hostile environments (e.g. low oxygen tensions).

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10
Q

3 types of cytoplasmic granules in neutrophils

A
  1. Primary granules- lysosomes (myeloperoixdase and acid hydrolases) that digest phagocytosed foreign material
  2. Secondary granules- specific granules that secrete substances that mobilise inflammatory mediators
  3. Tertiary granules- gelatinases (which break down proteins) and adhesion molecules (aid neutrophil out of blood vessels and through tissue)- faciliatate insertion of proteins into cell membrane
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11
Q

Examining cellular composition of blood

A

cellular composition of blood can be readily examined in a smear of whole cells produced by spreading a small drop of blood over a glass slide, allowing it to dry and then staining it with a Romanowsky stain/ Leishman’s stain

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12
Q

Structure and size of eosinophils

A

• 12-17um in diameter
• Bi-lobed/ tri-lobed nucleus
• Distinctive large red cytoplasmic granules with crystalline inclusions

• Charcot-Leyden crystals- Characteristic lozenge-shaped granules with crystalline cores (proteinaceous)
• Receptors for IgE (immunoglobulin E)

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13
Q

Role of eosinophils

A

Play a role in phagocytosis with particular affinity for antigen/antibody complexes and response to parasites and allergens

• Receptors for IgE (immunoglobulin E)
• Inhibit mast cell secretion
• Neutralise histamine so restrict inflammatory responses
• They remain in the circulation for only a few hours and show a diurnal fluctuation in numbers, being highest in the morning.
• 1% of total number of white blood cells
• Numbers increase in parasitic infections or allergic conditions

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14
Q

Mast cells

A

important role in inducing the inflammatory cascade eg release histamine. Innate or adaptive immune mechanisms can induce the mast cell to degranulate, releasing inflammatory mediators into the extracellular space.
Use a meta chromatic stain

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15
Q

Structure and size of basophils

A

• 0.5% of white cell series
• 14-16um in diameter - largest granulocyte
• Bi-lobed nucleus
• Prominent dark blue-staining cytoplasmic granules
• Granules contain histamine

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16
Q

Role of basophils

A

• involved in inflammatory regulations and act to prevent coagulation and agglutination
• Circulating form of the tissue mast cells
• Receptors for IgE
• Release histamine and vaso-active agents in response to allergens
• Results in immediate type 1 hypersensitivity reaction- anaphylaxis

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17
Q

Role of neutrophils

A

• phagocytotic - engulf and destroy bacteria and other foreign macromolecules using the respiratory burst
• mobile and motile cells- circulate in blood and invade tissue spaces
• contain myeloperoxidase- enzyme needed to conduct respiratory burst
• able to operate in hostile environments (e.g. low oxygen tensions).

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18
Q

2 types of lymphocytes

A

2 functional subtypes:
1. B cells (become plasma cell and secrete antibodies)- develop in bone marrow
2. T cells (involved in cell mediated immunity)- develop in thymus

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19
Q

Structure and size of lymphocytes

A

• Very few cytoplasmic inclusions so clear blue/grey cytoplasm
• Relatively small cells - 10um (grow in size as mature)

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20
Q

B cells

A

Produce antibodies

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21
Q

T helper cells

A

Activate B cells
Activate macrophages

22
Q

T cytotoxic cells

A

Kill previously marked target cells

23
Q

T supressor cells

A

Suppress TH cells so suppress immune response

24
Q

Natural killer cells

A

Mainly kill virus infected cells

25
Q

Structure and size of monocytes

A

• immature cells- circulate briefly in blood (a few hours)
• Characteristic reniform nucleus
• 15-20um in diameter

26
Q

Role of monocytes

A

• Differentiate into one of several cell types within connective tissue
• Major phagocytotic and defensive role
• Some become antigen presenting cells- passing antigen fragments to lymphocytes
• Small cytoplasmic granules- mostly lysosomes

27
Q

What do monocytes differentiate in to

A

• Tissue macrophages- everywhere
• Kupffer cells- liver, present in sinusoids
• Osteoclasts- bone, play a role in absorbing bone
• Antigen presenting cells- everywhere
• Alveolar macrophages- lung

28
Q

Which viscera have fixed macrophages derived from circulating monocytes

A

Spleen
Liver

29
Q

Structure and size of Platelets

A

• anucleated fragments of cells derived from large multi-nucleated megakaryocytes in bone marrow
• 1-3um in diameter surrounded by cell membrane and containing vesicles with coagulation factors

30
Q

Role of platelets

A

• Responsible for clotting of blood- particularly when endothelium lining of blood vessels is breached

31
Q

3 types of platelet granules

A
  1. Alpha granules- contain clotting factors
  2. Delta granules- contain serotonin absorbed into them from plasma following the discharge of clotting factors
  3. Peroxisomes- contain catalase (enzyme used in elimination of oxygen radicals)
32
Q

Haematopoesis

A

formation of blood cells in bone marrow
• all blood cells derived from a common multi potential haematopoetic stem cell (haemocytoblast)

33
Q

Haemocytoblast divides to form 2 different types of daughter cells:

A
  1. Common myeloid progenitor- ultimately gives rise to platelets, red blood cells, basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes and mast cells
  2. Common lymphoid progenitor- ultimately gives rise to lymphocytes
34
Q

Myelin

A

series lies next to bone and gives rise to white blood cells

35
Q

Erythron

A

series lies in between bony trabeculae and gives rise to erythrocytes

36
Q

Megakaryocytes

A

lie in between bony trabeculae and give rise to platelets

37
Q

Erythropoesis

A

• reducing cell size
• Haemoglobin production
• Reduction and loss of organelles
• Basophilia in early precursors changes to eosinophilia in late precursors
• Loss of nucleus
• Mediated by erythropoeitin (EPO)- hormone produced in kidneys
• Reticulocyte → erythrocytes

38
Q

Reticulocyte

A

contain blue-staining remnants of cytoplasmic organelles, notably the remains of the ribosomes used to synthesize the haemoglobin

Reticulocyte levels increase due to severe loss of blood

39
Q

Granulopoesis

A

• morphology similar for neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils
• Increasing number of granules
• Increasingly complex shape of nucleus
• Large pool of stored mature neutrophils in marrow

40
Q

How are erythrocytes removed

A

removed in spleen, liver, bone marrow (reticuloendothelial system) and through blood loss

41
Q

What is Erythropoesis regulated by

A

the hormone erythropoietin (a heavily glycosylated polypeptide)- secreted by the kidney in response to hypoxia
• It stimulates Erythropoesis by increasing the number of progenitor cells

42
Q

Haematocrit

A

Haematocrit (PCV) = ratio of volume of red blood cells to total volume (45%)

43
Q

Anaemia

A

haemoglobin level in blood below the normal level for age and sex
• male <130g/L + female <110g/L

44
Q

In which bones does haemopoesis occur in adult

A

Axial skeleton

45
Q

Innate immunity

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, macrophages, mast cells- non-specific immunity (cytokines, phagocytosis, cytotoxicity)

46
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

B cells, T cells- antigen-specific immunity (cytokines, antibodies, cytotoxicity)

47
Q

Myelopoiesis

A

production of white blood cells, hormonal factor: granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)- only stimulate production of myeloblastic white blood cells not lymphoid cells

48
Q

Which hormone controls Myelopoiesis

A

Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor GM-CSF

49
Q

Lifespan of platelets

A

7-10 days

50
Q

Membrane blebbing process

A

platelets break off from the megakaryocytes. 1 megakaryocyte can produce up to 4000 platelets
• Stimulated by thrombopoietin

Histology (17 decks)

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