Block 4 Flashcards
The airways are used for airway conduction. Which of the following structures are associated with the airways?
a) Nasal cavities
b) Pharynx
c) Larynx
d) Trachea and bronchial tree
e) all of the above
e) all of the above
What organ is responsible for gas exchange?
Lungs
What is the associated structure to the lungs that assist in gas exchange?
a) Bronchioles
b) Capillaries
c) Pleural sacs
c) Pleural sacs
What is the structure located midline between the external nares?
a) Alar fold
b) Nostril
c) Nose pad
d) Philtrum
d) Philtrum
Caudal ventral passage from the nasal cavity into the pharynx
Choana
What number on the picture correlates with the ventral nasal concha?
2 - Ventral nasal concha
What number correlates on the picture with the dorsal nasal concha?
3 - Dorsal nasal concha
The olfactory mucosa is responsible for sense of smell. It is located on the ethmoconchae. What number correlates to that structure?
4) Ethmoconchae
What number correlates with the hard palate?
6 - Hard palate
What number correlates with the vomer (resected)?
7 - Vomer
Cavities in bones of the skull that communicate with the nasal cavities
Paranasal sinuses
What is the landmark for the entrance to maxillary recess?
Carnassial tooth
What are the names of structures on the image?
Top - Frontal sinus
Bottom - Maxillary recess
The pharynx is the crossroad between what?
Respiratory and digestive ways
What structure is placed ventrally to the soft palate?
Oropharynx
What is the oral limit of the oropharynx?
Palatoglossal arches
What is the major caudal limit of the oropharynx?
Base of epiglottis
What structure is placed dorsally to the soft palate?
Nasopharynx
What is the oral limit of the nasopharynx?
Choanae
What is the major caudal limit of the nasopharynx?
Free border of soft palate
What structure is placed dorsally to the larynx?
Laryngopharynx
What is the major oral limit of the laryngopharynx?
Free border of the soft palate
What is the caudal limit of the laryngopharynx?
Pharyngoesophageal limen
What are the three divisions of the pharynx?
Oropharynx
Nasopharynx
Laryngopharynx
What structure is responsible for coughing, phonation, and preventing food aspiration?
Larynx
Ventral to the pharynx, suspended by the hyoid apparatus and attached to the trachea. What structure is described?
Larnyx
What are the 4 cartilages that make up the larynx? Which one is paired?
Epiglottis
Thyroid
Arytenoid - PAIRED
Cricoid
What is the most narrow segment of the larynx which can be closed?
Glottis
Vocal folds and part of the arytenoid cartilages
Glottis
Space defined by the glottis
Rima glottidis
Located on the sagittal plane at the ventral aspect of the neck and centrally in the thoracic cavity
Trachea
Gas exchange occurs in the _________ where O2 and CO2 traverse the air-blood barrier
Alveoli
The left lung is divided into what lobes?
Cranial - which is further divided in cranial and caudal parts
Caudal lobe
What are the right lung lobes?
Cranial lobe
Middle lobe
Caudal lobe
Accessory lobe
The main circulation of lungs is divided into the pulmonary trunk and pulmonary veins. Which structure is responsible for drainage?
Pulmonary veins
The pulmonary trunk is further divided into 2 pulmonary arteries who’s main purpose is what?
Supply
Each lung is pushed into a closed invaginated sac filled with a bit of fluid called what?
Pleural cavity
What pleura adhere to the surface of the lung? What number on the diagram correlates with this structure?
4 - Visceral or pulmonary pleura
What pleura adhere to the inner wall of the thorax? What number correlates with this structure?
1, 2, 3 - Parietal pleura
What is the role of the pleura and pleural cavities?
To prevent surface of the lungs from rubbing against thoracic wall during breathing (think “engine oil”)
What label marks the location of the olfactory mucosa?
4 - olfactory mucosa
Normal, quiet breathing
Eupnea
Increased breathing depth, frequency or both
Hyperpnea
Rapid, shallow breathing (ie panting)
Polypnea
O2 consumption and CO2 production vary with the ________ metabolism and metabolic rate
Basal
The metabolism rate of the resting animal, and is a function of metabolic body weight
Basal metabolism
Metabolic rate is dependent on the animals level of ______ and ______ _________
Metabolic rate is dependent on the animals level of activity and physical condition
VO2 max is ______ related to the total mass of _______ within the skeletal muscles
VO2 max is directly related to the total mass of mitochondria within the skeletal muscles
True or False
Gas exchange occurs in the conducting zone/anatomic dead space. Explain answer.
FALSE
Gas exchange does NOT occur in these pathways.
Conducting zone brings air into and out of the respiratory zone FOR gas exchange but does not OCCUR there.
What structure is important to humidify, warm and filter the air before it reaches the gas exchange area?
Conducting Zone
What 7 structures are included in the conducting zone?
Nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
The conducting zone, made up of the tracheobronchial tree, contain mucus secreting and ciliated cells which allow for what?
Filtering of small particles that enter the airway. They are swept upward by the rhythmic beating of the cilia.
The walls of the conducting airways contain smooth muscle and innervation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. In the case of the sympathetic system, what is the purpose of epinephrine?
It dilates the airways making it easier to breathe in flight/fight
The walls of the conducting airways contain smooth muscle and innervation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. In the case of the parasympathetic system, what is the purpose of Acetylcholine?
It constricts the airways to allow rest/digest
In what zone does gas exchange occur?
Respiratory zone
The respiratory zone includes what structures?
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Thin walled, pouch like evaginations of the walls of the respiratory bronchioles, alevolar ducts, and sacs that provide more surface area and are covered by capillaries
Alveoli
In the respiratory zone, the alveolar walls contain 2 types of _________ cells. What are they?
Epithelial; Pneumonocytes and macrophages
What type of pneumonocyte covers 95% of the alveolar surface? (It is extremely thin, efficient for gas exchange between the alveolus and pulmonary capillaries.)
Type 1 pneumonocyte
This pneumonocyte synthesizes pulmonary surfactant to reduce surface tension of alveoli and prevent it from collapsing.
Type II Pneumonocyte
What pneumonocyte secretes cytokines?
Type II pneumonocyte
First line of defense against invading respiratory pathogens and remove inhaled particles from the alveolus.
Macrophages
What respiratory structures DO NOT have cilia?
Alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
What part of the respiratory contain cartilage?
a) Trachea
b) Bronchi
c) Bronchioles
d) Alevoli
e) a and b
f) all of the above
e) a and b
What respiratory structure contains no smooth muscle, cilia or cartilage?
Alveolar sacs
Respiration consists of 4 distinct processes:
- Pulmonary ventilation
- Pulmonary gas exchange
- Gas transport
- Peripheral gas exchange
What two structures promote pulmonary ventilation?
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
Pulmonary gas exchange is diffusion of gases from the ________ to the ________ of the pulmonary capillaries
Pulmonary gas exchange is diffusion of gases from the alveoli to the blood of the pulmonary capillaries
Peripheral gas exchange is diffusion of ______ from the ______ of the _______ ________ to the cells.
Peripheral gas exchange is diffusion of gases from the blood of the Systemic capillaries to the cells.
Respiratory pressure is always described relative to ________ _______
Respiratory pressure is always described relative to atmospheric pressure
Inhalation requires active contraction of what structures?
a) Diaphragm
b) External intercostal muscles
c) Abductor muscles attached to external nares, pharynx and larynx
d) all of the above
d) all of the above
Inhalation _______ intrapulmonary volume and _______ pressure (air inhaled)
(blanks: increase or decrease?)
Inhalation increases intrapulmonary volume and decreases pressure (air inhaled)
Exhalation _______ intrapulmonary volume and _______ pressure (air exhaled)
(blanks: increase or decrease?)
Exhalation decreases intrapulmonary volume and increases pressure (air exhaled)
In inhalation the diaphragm __________ and moves down. In Exhalation, the diaphragm _______ and moves up.
In inhalation the diaphragm contracts and moves down. In exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and moves up.
What is the major nonelastic source of resistance to airflow
Frictional resistance
Resistance is determined primarily by the ______ of the airways.
Resistance is determined primarily by the radius of the airways
Compliance is determined by what 2 main factors?
Distensibility and surface tension of the alveoli
True or False
Surfactanct helps increase the surface tension to keep alveoli from collapsing
FALSE
Surfactant reduces the surface tension and helps keep the alveoli from collapsing
True or False
The high velocity turbulent airflow in the trachea and bronchi produces the lung sounds heard through a stethoscope.
Low velocity flow in bronchioles produce NO sound.
True
Pulmonary arteries carry _______ blood from the ______ ventricle to the pulmonary ________ where it becomes ______ and returns to the left side of the heart in pulmonary ______
Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the pulmonary capillaries where it becomes oxygenated and returns to the left side of the heart in pulmonary veins
What circulation provides a nutritional blood supply to airways and other structures within the lungs?
Bronchial circulation
Bronchial arteries carry _______ blood and veins carry ______ blood
Bronchial arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood
In bipedal animals, pulmonary circulation is _______ dependent, meaning blood flows _______ at the bottom of the lungs and ______ at the top of the lungs.
In bipedal animals, pulmonary circulation is gravity dependent, meaning blood flows highest at the bottom of the lungs and lowest at the top of the lungs
In quadruped animals, blood flow is distributed to the __________ region of the lungs
caudodorsal
The ability to regulate blood flow depends on the presence of _______ _______ in the walls of small pulmonary arteries
The ability to regulate blood flow depends on the presence of smooth muscle in the walls of small pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins have _____ walls and they conduct oxygenated blood from pulmonary capillaries to the ______ ______
Pulmonary veins have thin walls and they conduct oxygenated blood from the pulmonary capillaries to the left atrium
Blood within the pulmonary veins serves as a reservoir for blood for the ______ heart.
Blood within the pulmonary veins serves as a reservoir for blood for the left heart
True or False
Gas exchange can NOT occur if an alveolus receives blood but no ventilation or vice verse. (Ventilation-perfusion mismatch)
True
Which of the following are reasons for uneven ventilation?
a) Pulmonary edema
b) Airway obstruction
c) Recumbency
d) all of the above
d) all of the above
Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction of small pulmonary arteries is beneficial when there is localized _______ hypoxia to reduce the pulmonary shunt
Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction of small pulmonary arteries is beneficial when there is localized alveolar hypoxia to reduce the pulmonary shunt
Generalized pulmonary hypoxia causes vasoconstriction which can increase pulmonary arterial pressure, this increases the work of the _______ ventricle and leads to ______ sided heart failure.
Generalized pulmonary hypoxia causes vasoconstriction with an increase in pulmonary arterial pressure, this increases the work of the right ventricle and leads to right sided heart failure
An acid is a proton ______
An acid is a proton donor
A base is a proton ______
A base is a proton acceptor
Strong acids dissociate quickly in a solution ______ large amounts of H+
Strong acids dissociate quickly in a solution releasing large amounts of H+
Strong bases react very quickly with H+ _______ it from a solution.
Strong bases react very quickly with H+ releasing it from a solution
A weak ______ only partially dissociates in an aqueous solution. A weak _____ does not fully ionize in an aqueous solution.
A weak acid only partially dissociates in an aqueous solution.
A weak base does not fully ionize in an aqueous solution
True or False
Most of the acids and bases involved in acid-base balance homeostasis are strong
FALSE
Most of the acids and bases involved in the acid base balance are WEAK
True or False
Difference between activity and concentration of H+ is not significant in body fluids
True
Acidity is related to ___ concentration
Acidity is related to H+ concentration
What is the normal extracellular fluid concentration of H+?
a) 40 nEq/L (0.00000004 N)
b) 20 nEq/L
c) 1nm
a) 40 nEq/L
What is the normal pH Of blood?
a) 7.45
b) 7.2
c) 7.4
d) 7.0
c) 7.4 (7.398)
True or False
Intracellular pH is slightly higher than blood
FALSE it is slightly lower than blood at 7.2
Why is hydrogen concentration expressed as a logarithmic function?
Because the concentration is VERY low yet powerful
True or False
There is an inverse relationship between pH and [H+], therefore the greater the H concentration, the lower the pH
True
If there is an increase in H+ concentration, there is a decrease in pH in the blood. This is referred to as ________
Acidemia
If there is a decrease in H+ concentration, there is an increase in pH In the blood. This is referred to as ______
Alkalemia
Acidemia is the decrease in blood pH below normal limits.
The hydrogen ion concentration is ______ normal limits
They hydrogen ion concentration is above normal limits
Alkalemia is the increase in blood pH above normal limits.
The hydrogen ion concentration is _____ normal limits
The hydrogen ion concentration is below normal limits
True or False
pH and [H+] vary linearly with one another
False
They vary exponentially
A change of one pH unit changes the [H+] by a factor of _____
A change in one pH unit changes the [H+] by a factor of ten
ie. a pH of 1 = [H+] of 0.1
What is the Law of Mass Action?
The velocity of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants
A buffer solution consists of a _____ acid and its conjugate base.
A buffer solution consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base
True or False
Buffers irreversibly bind H+ and prevent major changes in pH
FALSE
Buffers REVERSIBLY bind H+ and prevent major changes in pH
First line of defense to prevent major changes in blood pH
Blood buffers
What is the Isohydric principle?
Multiple buffers in the same solution are always in equilibrium
What is the buffer system used to monitor acid-base balance?
Bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system
What are the physiological buffers?
a) Chemical buffer system
b) Lungs
c) Kidneys
d) B and C
e) all of the above
d) B and C
What are the three systems that regulate hydrogen ion concentration and pH in body fluids?
Chemical buffer system
Lungs
Kidneys
What must correct the hydrogen ion load against changes in blood pH?
a) Blood chemical buffer system
b) Lungs and kidneys
c) All of the above
b) Lungs and kidneys
While the blood chemical buffer system is the first line of defense against pH change, the lungs and kidneys ultimately correct the H+ load.
True or False
The chemical buffers act immediately to prevent changes in pH by adding or removing H+ to restore balance
False
The chemical buffers act immediately to prevent changes in pH by keeping them in control until the balance is restored by lungs/kidneys. They do not add or remove H+
Most important extracellular buffer in the body - buffers volatile acids (CO2)
a) Bicarbonate Buffer system
b) Phosphate Buffer system
c) Proteins
d) Ammonia buffer system
a) Bicarbonate buffer system
Important in kidneys and cytoplasm of cells - buffers nonvolatile acids that cannot be eliminated by respiration.
a) Bicarbonate Buffer system
b) Phosphate Buffer system
c) Proteins
d) Ammonia buffer system
b) Phosphate Buffer system
What protein group functions as weak acids?
a) Amine groups
b) Carboxyl groups
c) Ammonia groups
d) Phosphate groups
b) Carboxyl groups
What protein group functions as a weak base?
a) Amine groups
b) Carboxyl groups
c) Ammonia groups
d) Phosphate groups
a) amine groups
Proteins coupled with ________ buffer system and organic phosphates (ATP), can contribute to total body acid-base balance.
Proteins coupled with phosphate buffer system and organic phosphates (ATP) can contribute to total body acid-base balance
Proteins are plentiful in the body and due to their higher concentration within cells are important for _______ acid-base balance
Proteins are plentiful in the body and due to their higher concentration within cells are important for intracellular acid-base balance
Hemoglobin have a significant and rapid impact on blood acid-base balance. However, ________ has a higher buffer capacity as it has ______ affinity for H+
Hemoglobin have a significant and rapid impact on blood acid-base balance. However deoxyhemoglobin has a higher buffer capacity as it has a higher affinity for H+
What are the most important blood buffer systems?
Hemoglobin and bicarbonate buffer system
Hemoglobin can accommodate protons at 2 positions.
a) basic carboxyl groups
b) imidazole groups of histidine
c) Bond with iron of the heme group
d) all of the above
d) all of the above
What makes up 80% of the CO2 transport?
Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
What is the most important chemical buffer system of the ECF?
a) Phosphate
b) Protein
c) Bicarbonate
d) Ammonia
c) Bicarbonate
True or False
The components of the bicarbonate buffer system can be independently regulated as they are an open system
True
True or False
CO2 can be excreted by the lungs but bicarbonate ions and H+ can not be excreted or reabsorbed.
False
CO2 can be excreted by the lungs and bicarbonate ions and H+ CAN be excreted or reabsorbed by the kidneys.
Carbonic acid is formed from the reaction between ______ and ______ yielding _______. This is an enzyme dependent reaction.
Carbonic acid is formed from the reaction between CO2 and H2O yielding H2CO3
Bicarbonate is formed by the ________ of H2CO3 to H+ and HCO3.
Bicarbonate is formed by the dissociation of H2CO3 to H+ and HCO3
The bicarbonate buffer system is a reversible reaction called the _______ reaction
The bicarbonate buffer system is a reversible reaction called the hydration reaction.
What reaction is favored within erythrocytes?
Hydration reaction
The enzyme ______ ________ catalyzes the hydration reaction and is especially abundant in RBC’s, walls of alveoli, and epithelial cells of the renal tubules.
The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the hydration reaction and is especially abundant in RBC’s, walls of alveoli, and epithelial cells of the renal tubules
In RBC’s not all H+ are buffered, so venous blood has a _____ pH than arterial blood.
In RBC’s not all H+ are buffered, so venous blood has a lower pH than arterial blood.
What is the weak acid in the phosphate buffer system?
Dyhydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-)
What is the conjugate base in the phosphate buffer system?
Monohydrogen phosphate (HPO4^-2)
Name each labeled part and identify ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon
Ascending –> Transverse –> Descending
Where is the caudal boundary of the oral cavity?
7 - Palatoglossal arch
Identify the structures in the image
1- vestibule
2- canine tooth
2’- philtrum
3- hard palate
4- soft palate
5- tongue
6- sublingual caruncle
7- palatoglossal arch
8- palatine tonsil
9- franulum
What are the two segments of the oral cavity?
Oral vestibule and oral cavity proper
What are the annexed organs in the mouth?
Tongue, salivary glands, and teeth
Name the structures in the photo
1- Apex
2- body
3- root
4- floor of oropharynx
5- vallate papilla
6- Fungiform
7- Palatoglossal arch
8- Palatine tonsil
9- Epiglottis
10- Frenulum
What are the three segments of the tongue
Base (root), body, and apex
What is the filiform papillae in cats? How is it different than dogs?
Keratinized, conical papillae
What are the salivary glands in dogs?
Parotid, mandibular, sublingual, zygomatic (specific for carnivores)
What is the dental formula for canines?
3-1-4-2
3-1-4-3
What numbers are the canine teeth?
104, 204, 304, 404
Label the parts of the pharynx
Oropharynx is near 2
Laryngopharynx is between 6 and 8
Nasopharynx is by 1
What are the three parts of the esophagus in order from highest (nearest the head) to lowest (nearest the chest)
Cervical, Thoracic, abdominal
What is the longest segment of the small intestine?
Jejunem
In dogs the ileum opens into what?
The ascending colon - ileocolonic orifice
What organ is twisted in dogs but small and coma shaped in cats?
Cecum
How many lobes of the the liver do dogs have?
Six
Label the six major lobes of the dog liver
Right lateral
Right medial
Left lateral
Left medial
Quadrate
Caudate
What are the two surfaces of the liver?
Parietal surface (in contact with diaphragm) - convex
Visceral surface (in contact w stomach and right kidney) - concave
What is the gall bladder located between?
Right medial and quadrate lobes of the liver
Identify the body of pancreas, left lobe of pancreas and right lobe of pancreas
Body is near number 3
Left lobe is near number 5
Right lobe is near number 4
What are the two ducts in the pancreas? Which one is inconstant in the dog
The pancreatic duct (inconstant in dog)
and accessory pancreatic duct
Equine dental formula
3-1-3(4)-3
3-1-3-3
Cattle dental formula
0-0-3-3
3-1-3-3
Identify the margo plicatus
4
Identify right vs left view
Identify compartments
1- reticulum
2- omasum
3- abomasum
4- rumen
What is considered the “true stomach” in ruminants as it most closely resembles the monogastric stomach?
Abomasum
Fermentation chamber of ruminant stomachs
Rumen
The rumen extends from the ______ to the ______ ______
The rumen extends from the cardia to the pelvic inlet
What structure in the bovine stomach has a honeycomb appearance?
Reticular mucosa
What chambers are found on the right side of the abdomen in ruminants?
The omasum and the abomasum
What chambers are found on the left side of the abdomen in ruminants?
The rumen and the reticulum
What chamber has the greater and lesser curvatures?
The omasum
Identify which GI tract belongs to which species
A- Dog
B- Horse
C- Cattle
In horses what is the first segment of the large intestine and where is it located?
Cecum, placed on the right side of the abdomen
What pancreatic duct do bovines have? What about sheep and goats?
Bovine have accessory pancreatic duct
Sheep and goats have pancreatic duct
Gram positive bacteria causing lumpy jaw in bovine
Actinomycosis (actinomyces bovis)
Gram negative bacteria causing wooden tongue in bovine
Actinobacillus lignieresii
A cow presents with an arched back, spontaneous grunting and abducted elbows. What disease is associated with these symptoms?
Hardware disease- Traumatic reticulo-peritonitis
What can happen if a foreign body migrates cranially in bovine?
Clinical signs of CHF
-Brisket edema
-Jugular vein distension
-Muffled heart sounds
-Tachynpnea, tachycardia
What diseases are related to the small intestine?
Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome
Intussusception
Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome can be caused by what?
Clostridium Perfringens type A
Aspergillus fumigatus
If a bullseye is seen on ultrasound what disease process should be considered?
Intussusception
How is intussusception treated?
Enterectomy to surgically resect the affected intestinal segment
Cecal process in which there is distension but no twist
Cecal dilation
Cecal process in which there is rotation along the long axis
Cecal torsion
Cecal process in which there is dorsal or ventral dislocation
Cecal volvulus
If there is dorsal retroflexion what direction is the volvulus?
Clockwise
If there is ventral retroflexion what direction is the volvulus?
Counterclockwise
If there is a right ping in the right paralumbar fossa what should our differential be?
Simple dilation of the cecum
How can you tell if there is torsion or volvulus vs simple dilation?
Apex is not palpated if torsion or volvulus is present
