Block 1: general principles

Question 1

What is a principle? (action / ontological)

Answer 1

Principles are presupppositions that always apply in a given situation. A principle of action decides how a discipline will be persued while an ontological principle are assumptions about the nature of reality.

Question 2

Name the 8 principles in this course

Answer 2

MEEPVEECC:
Conservation of energy
Conservation of matter
E=M*C²
Enthropy
Evolution
ecology
Population
vicious circle

Question 3

What is the principle of conservation of energy?

Answer 3

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed

Question 4

What is the principle of the conservation of matter

Answer 4

Quantity of matter is constant
In other words, energy cannot be transformed from a material to a non-material or vice versa (this principle does not apply in nuclear energy)

Question 5

What is the principle of E=MC²

Answer 5

There is a relationship between matter and energy and one can be converted into the other.

Question 6

The principle of enthropy

Answer 6

○ Second law of thermodynamics
○ Energy tends to dissipate (systems tend towards disorder)
○ so far as environmental science is concerned, this means that whatever concentrations of energy or chemical elements as presently exist on earth will tend to dissipate over time.
This natural process is being given a gigantic push by humankind, through its mining and use of fossil fuels and minerals. The entropy principle implies that there will be a day when humans cannot use fossil fuels, uranium or metals, the ultimate limit for fuels being where the amount of usable energy required to extract them exceeds the amount of usable energy they provide.

Question 7

The principle of evolution

Answer 7

Life forms on earth have evolved from a common source,
each surviving as a species as a result of its being genetically
adapted to its biological and physical environment.

Question 8

The principle of ecology

Answer 8

• groups of living beings constitute systems, each of which may or may not be in equilibrium with the other systems constituting its environment.
• Individual living beings form biological systems, populations of living beings constitute subsystems of ecosystems, which are subsystems of the biosphere.
All these systems depend on solar energy, we can’t live sustainably as long as society exceeds the energy delivered by the sun.

Question 9

The principle of population

Answer 9

• If there were no checks to population size, that of the human (or any) population would tend to increase indefinitely.
Usually seen as that resources could be the only check on growth, but humans can impose cultural check to keep us above the point of using all available resources

Question 10

The principle of the vicious circle

Answer 10

• With human’s free will and ingenuity there are principles that apply to only us, like the vicious cycle
• If there were no checks to population size, that of the human (or any) population would tend to increase indefinitely.
• This principle applies to us up to today but could be changed because of our free will
We push against limits and through our technology, we stretch those limits

Question 11

Explain what a “system” is and elaborate on: open system, closed system and isolated system.

Answer 11

any group of entities among which there is an ongoing (not a one-time event) cause-and-effect relationship (interaction between the entities)
- open system;
○ A system where matter or energy can flow into and/or out of the system.
- closed system;
○ A system in which matter neither enters nor leaves.
- isolated system
A system in which energy neither enters nor leaves

Question 12

How come an ecosystem can avoid collapse despite the principle of enthropy?

Answer 12

In ecosystems, a system can avoid collapse despite loss of equilibrium thanks to its regenerative ability. Unlike physical systems, ecosystems tend to decrease entropy due to energy supplied by the sun

Question 13

What is sustainable development?

Answer 13

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Question 14

Explain the difference between the growth vs no-growth camps within sustainable development

Answer 14

○ Growth advocate:
§ Sustainability is reached through economic growth and trade, which generates the wealth needed to develop technologies to achieve sustainability
§ Advocates cost-benefits analysis and contingent valuation (i.e. putting a price on nature)
§ They also look at sinks of a system (where resources are disposed of i.e. pollution))
○ No-growth advocate:
§ Sees economic growth as the cause of environmental problems, which leads us away and not toward a sustainable society.
Often looks at the source of a system, where they come from (reduce consumption)

Question 15

explain the principle of population, limits and checks on populations size, and their relevance to environmental sciences

Answer 15

○ If there were no checks to population size, that of the human (or any) population would tend to increase indefinitely.
○ It’s often the case that resources are the only check on growth, but humans can impose cultural checks to keep us above the point of using all available resources
○ Relevance:
Humans, unlike all other species, have the ability consciously to set their own checks on their population size. One way of seeing the principle of sustainable development is as a cry to humankind to employ its own checks to keep its population size within what the earth can sustain in the long term.

Question 16

explain the principle of population, limits and checks on populations size, and their relevance to environmental sciences.

Answer 16

○ If there were no checks to population size, that of the human (or any) population would tend to increase indefinitely.
○ Usually seen as that resources could be the only check on growth, but humans can impose cultural check to keep us above the point of using all available resources
○ Relevance:
Note, however, the importance of the hunter-gatherer example. Humans, unlike all other species, have the ability consciously to set their own checks on their population size. One way of seeing the principle of sustainable development is as a cry to humankind to employ its own checks to keep its population size within what the earth can sustain in the long term

Question 17

What does it mean for a system to be in equilibrium and what is a static and dynamic equilibrium?

Answer 17

• equilibrium;
○ A system is in equilibrium when all influences on the system cancel each other out and lead to no organizational change.
• static equilibrium;
○ A system is in equilibrium when all influences on the system cancel each other out and lead to no organizational change and no structural change
○ Note: A box that is divided into two compartments, i.e. compartment A and B, which are separated by a
semi‐permeable membrane is called in “static equilibrium” when the flow of chemical X from
compartment A to B equals the flow from compartment B to A. In other words: the net transport of
chemical X over the membrane is zero.

• dynamic equilibrium
	○ A system is in equilibrium when all influences on the system cancel each other out and lead to no organizational change but to lead to structural change Imagine a bathtub that is overflowing, the water level remains constant. The inflow equal the outflow

Question 18

What types of checks exist within the study of populations?

Answer 18

• preventive check;
○ A population control measure that influences the birth rate.
• internal check;
○ A population control measure that comes from within the population.
• external check,
○ A population control measure that comes from outside the population.
• positive check.
A population control measure that influences the death rate.

Question 19

The sustainable development debate includes ‘growth economists’ and ‘no-growth economists’. Suppose that a ‘no-growth’ advocate were to become Minister of Transport. What measures to promote sustainable development would (s)he take? What would be the main differences with a minister who would advocate growth?

Answer 19

○ Growth advocate:
§ Sustainability is reached through economic growth and trade, which generates the wealth needed to develop technologies to achieve sustainability
§ Advocates cost-benefits analysis and contingent valuation (i.e. putting a price on nature)
§ They also look at sinks of a system (where resources are disposed of i.e. pollution))
○ No-growth advocate:
§ Sees economic growth as the cause of environmental problems, which leads us away and not toward a sustainable society.
§ Often looks at the source of a system, where they come from (reduce consumption)
§ A typical no-growth advocate would propose measures to reduce the volume of transport. Examples of such measures include stimulating a regionalized economy (eat local products!), promoting working from home, spatial planning measures to promote working close to residential areas and cycling to work.
○ By contrast, a growth advocate would take measures that reduce polluting forms of transport and stimulate clean forms. Typical examples include tax incentives to promote cleaner and more efficient cars, investments in public
transport, and setting up an infrastructure for electric cars.

Question 20

If you put a cup full of water (without a lid) in a room, the water will evaporate. This is an example of which principle?

Answer 20

Enthorpy

Question 21

The production and use of artificially produced nanoparticles is increasing rapidly in our society. There are worries that these particles will eventually end up in the environment where they may cause adverse effects on ecosystems, wildlife or humans. What principle best describes the nature of this problem?

Answer 21

The entropy principle, because the molecules tend to spread through the environment. The level of organization of the nanoparticles decreases when they spread through the environment.

Question 22

Several systems, or elements of systems, can be identified in our homes. An example is the electric power system. Elements of this system include power stations and cables, and, within homes, energy meters, wiring and sockets. Describe two other systems of which elements can be found in our homes, mention their main elements and identify whether these systems are static or dynamic, and whether they are isolated, open or closed. How do these systems’ characteristics relate to the environmental impacts associated with the systems?

Answer 22

○ Examples include the water system, the waste collection system, the
heating system, the food system and communication systems.
§ For example, elements of the water system include the intake of water(including groundwater), purification, distribution, metering, sewage water distribution, sewage water treatment and effluents. All of these systems are open and dynamic; matter and energy are continuously exchanged with other systems, and although their organization remains the same, the system itself is changing all the time.
For instance, water consumption varies with the outside temperature and water treatment technologies depend on the quality of the water produced. The open character of these systems implies that they may be unsustainable: they require resources (matter, energy) and they produce waste.

Question 23

Explain in your own words why the entropy principle does not apply to ecosystems.

Answer 23

The entropy principle states that the level of organization of matter in a system decreases. However, life forms are examples of organized molecules. An increase in biomass implies an increase in ‘organized matter’. This is driven by the fact that an ecosystem receives energy from the sun. There is thus a constant influx of energy in ecosystems, which can lead to a decrease in entropy (increased level of organization of matter: an expanding ecosystem) or a constant level of entropy (if the ecosystem is in equilibrium).

Question 24

Imagine you’re in the bathroom, you open the tap and the bath fills with water until it overflows. Now, with the tap running and the bath overflowing, the system (i.e. the water in the bath) is:

Answer 24

In dynamic equilibrium

Question 25

Give some examples of modern cultural checks on the growth of the human population. Indicate whether these are preventive or positive in nature

Answer 25

A good example is China’s one-child-policy. Other examples include the use of contraceptives such as the pill and condoms, and abortion. These are all preventive checks. Euthanasia and warfare qualify as modern positive cultural checks.

Question 26

What is the most important difference between the way the human population is regulated and the population regulation in other species?

Answer 26

The most important difference is the fact that humans have the ability to consciously set their own checks on their population size. Populations of other living organisms are often regulated by external checks and not by consciously applied internal checks.

Question 27

In Section 7.11 the author states that ‘One could say that the successive populations of the human species actually do not constitute a system, as they have as yet to come into equilibrium with the other systems constituting their environment.’ Do you agree with the argumentation behind this statement? Is it in line with the principle of ecology discussed in this chapter?

Answer 27

○ The statement seems to violate the principle of ecology: ‘various groupings of living beings constitute systems, each of which may or may not be in equilibrium with other systems constituting
the environment.’ Hence, the fact that there is no equilibrium does not mean that there is no system. In other words: it is not a prerequisite for a system.