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Bio > Bios 355 Exam 3 > Flashcards

Bios 355 Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Systole

A

Contraction phase

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2
Q

Diastole

A

Relaxation phase

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3
Q

Cardiac cycle

A
  1. Both atria and ventricles are relaxed
  2. Blood return from venous system enters atria (AV valves between atria & ventricle are open, blood enters ventricle)
  3. Ventricles expand to accommodate the increase in volume of blood
  4. SA node initiates AP
  5. Blood is forced through the AV valves into the ventricles
  6. AP has progressed through the AV node down the Bundle of his and into Purkinje fibers
  7. Begin ventricular contraction
  8. Pressure continues to rise (isovolumetric contraction)
  9. Ventricular pressure exceeds arterial pressure
  10. AP is completed
  11. When ventricular pressure falls below arterial pressure semilunar valves close (2nd heart sound)
  12. Ventricle replaces isovolumetrically
  13. When the ventricle pressure falls below the atrial pressure the AV valves will open
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4
Q

Collagen cords (cardiac tendinae)

A

Tether the valves

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5
Q

End diastolic volume

A

Max volume in ventricles

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6
Q

Vasculature (flow of blood through the system)

A
  1. Blood returns to heart via vena cava
  2. Through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle
  3. Ventricle contracts and pushes blood
  4. Out of pulmonary circulation
  5. Coalesce into pulmonary vein
  6. Pulmonary vein delivery blood to left atria
  7. Heart contracts
  8. Aorta > systemic calculation, blood is subdivided to various organs/tissues
  9. Coalesce into systemic veins
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7
Q

Lungs

A

Total volume: 5 L/min
% C.O.: 100%
Increase in physical activity: 16 L/min

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8
Q

Brain

A

Total volume: 0.7 L/min
Weighted volume: 55mL/100g
% C.O.: 14%
Increase in physical activity: 0.7 L/min (no change)

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9
Q

Heart

A

Total volume: 0.2 L/min
Weighted volume: 70mL/100g
% C.O.: 4%
Increase in physical activity: 0.6L/min

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10
Q

GI tract

A

Total volume: 1.35L/min
Weighted volume: 100mL/100g
% C.O.: 27%
Increase in physical activity: 0.5L/min

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11
Q

Kidneys

A

Total volume: 1L/min
Weighed volume: 40mL/100g
% C.O.: 20%
Increase in physical activity: 0.4L/min

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12
Q

Skeletal muscle

A

Total volume: 1L/min
Weighed volume: 5mL/100g
% C.O.: 21%
Increase in physical activity: 12L/min

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13
Q

Skin

A

Total volume: 0.25L/min
Weighed volume: 10mL/100g
% C.O.: 5%
Increase in physical activity: 1.5L/min

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14
Q

Characteristics of fluid flow

A
  1. Pressure falls as a function of distance (pressure drops due to friction)
  2. Decrease size of container and the amount of fluid stays the same (pressure increases)
  3. Blood flows from regions of high to lower pressure
  4. Resistance opposes flow
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15
Q

Parameters that influence resistance

A
  1. Length of the tube (increase length > increase resistance)
  2. Radius of the tube (decrease radius > increase resistance)
  3. Viscosity of the fluid (increase viscosity > increase resistance)
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16
Q

Blood vessels

A

Lined with endothelial cells
Communicate with SM
Low resistance

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17
Q

Arteries

A 
Diameter of 4mm 
Thick walls 1mm  
Lots of SM
Elastic tissue 
Fibrous tissue (prevents rupture, strength)
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18
Q

Arterioles

A

Diameter of 30 micrometers
Walls: 6 micrometers
SM
Little elastic/fibrous tissue

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19
Q

Capillaries

A

Diameter: 8-9 micrometers

Single layer of endothelial cells

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20
Q

Venules

A 
Diameter: 20-25 micrometers 
Fibrous tissue 
Veins 
Wall: 0.5 mm
SM, fibrous and elastic tissue
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21
Q 
Blood distribution 
1. Pulmonary circulation 
2. Heart 
3 systemic arteries 
4. Systemic capillaries 
5. Systemic veins
A
  1. 9%
  2. 7%
  3. 13%
  4. 7%
  5. 64%
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22
Q

Mean pressure

A 
Arteries: 90 mmHg 
Arterioles: 60 mmHg
Capillaries: 25 mmHg 
Venules: 15 mmHg
Veins: 0-10 mmHg
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23
Q 
Flow velocity 
Arteries 
Arterioles 
Capillaries 
Venules
Veins
A 
48 cm/s
15 cm/s 
1 cm/s 
4 cm/s 
30 cm/s
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24
Q

Vascular peripheral resistance

A

Overall resistance to blood flow through the system

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25
Q

Vasoconstriction

A 
Decrease radius 
Increase resistance 
Decrease flow 
1. NE 
2. Serotonin release 
3. Endothelin (paracrine)
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26
Q

Vasodilation

A 
Increase radius 
Decreases resistance 
Increase flow 
1. Epi
2. Nitric oxide 
3. Adenosine
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27
Q

Metabolic rate (indicators of high metabolism)

A 
High CO2 
Low O2 
Low pH
High potassium 
(Increase radius, decrease resistance, increase flow)
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28
Q

Histamine

A

Local inflammatory molecule
Can cause vascular endothelial cells to contract
Increase in blood flow
Vasodilation

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29
Q

Vasoactive intestinal peptide

A

Increase blood during digestion

Produce neurons of the enteric nervous system

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30
Q

Capillary exchange

A
  1. Single endothelial layer
  2. Gap between cells that allow fluid out
  3. Fluid is pushed out of the capillary by the hydrostatic pressure
    Fluid bathes cells
    Diffusion and transcytosis
    Bulk flow
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31
Q

Vascular SM

A

Regulating the radius of arterioles

Controls blood flow to the capillaries

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32
Q

With histamine

A 
Bigger gaps between endothelial cells 
Decrease resistance to flow 
More fluid exits along with proteins 
Allows WBC to exit 
Swelling 
Swelling creates gaps (make it easier for immune cells to get to site of inflammation) 
Swelling is beneficial at a local level
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33
Q

Cardiac shock

A

Heart failure

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34
Q

Hypovolumic shock

A

Blood volume is too low

Blood loss due to hemorrhaging

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35
Q

Septic shock

A

Bacterial infection

System wide inflammation

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36
Q

Anaphylactic shock

A

Immune cell over reaction

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37
Q

Miscellaneous agents that influence blood flow

A
  1. Inflammation (immune response)
  2. Malnutrition
  3. Anemia (low RBC concentration)
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38
Q

Systemic circulation

A

Left side of heart contracts, pulls blood to periphery

Vasodilate when O2 is low, CO2 is high, pH is low

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39
Q

Pulmonary circulation

A

Right side of heart contracts, pulls blood to lungs
Vasodilate (SM)
Bloods gains O2
Gets rid of CO2

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40
Q

Angeiogenesis

A

Growth of blood vessels
Vascularization of a tissue
Exercise promotes angiogenesis in skeletal muscle
Very active during growth and development
Wound healing

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41
Q

Pathologies

A

Like to promote angiogenesis in coronary heart tissue

Like to prevent angiogenesis in cancer

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42
Q

Blood

A

5 liters in body
40% blood cells
60% fluid

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43
Q

Erythrocytes

A

RBC

Gas transport

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44
Q

Leukocytes

A

WBC
Defense
Immune response

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45
Q

Platelets

A

Coagulation
Cell fragments
Contain mitochondria, ER, secretory vesicles
Respond to collagen

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46
Q

Proteins in blood

A

Albumins: transport/attach hydrophobic molecules
Globulins: antibodies
Fibrinogen: blood clotting

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47
Q

Hematocrit

A

% of RBC in whole blood
Males: 40-52%
Females: 38-48%

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48
Q

Blood cell production

A

Marrow of bones
RBC > half life of about 4 months
WBC > half life of les than a day (100 billion)

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49
Q

Multipotent progenitor cells

A

Uncommitted blood stem cell

Lymphocyte stem cell (acquired immune cells, T-cells, B-cells, antibodies)

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50
Q

Uncommitted blood stem cell

A

Route 1: erythroblast > differentiate > mature RBC
Route 2: megakaryocyte > produce platelets
Route 3: inmate immune cells

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51
Q

RBC production

A
  1. Production is regulated by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
  2. EPO is produced by kidney
  3. EPO target bone marrow (activate the uncommitted blood stem cells)
  4. Produce erythroblasts (nucleated)
  5. Nucleus condenses
  6. Erythroblasts > reticulocyte
  7. Reticulocytes exit bone marrow (enter circulation)
  8. 24 hours to mature into adult RBC
    (Last about 120 days)
  9. Take on biconcave disk appearance
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52
Q

Reticulocytes

A

Immature
Migratory
Leave bone marrow and enter circulation

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53
Q

Biconcave disk

A

Flexible
Increases surface area (more surface area, greater diffusion rate)
Stackable (less adhesion)

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54
Q

Iron transport systems

A

Intestine
Fe binds to a protein called transferrin
Transferrin: deliver to bone marrow used in Hb synthesis

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55
Q

Thrombopoietin

A

In liver

Megakaryocytes produce more platelets

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56
Q

Colony-stimulating factor/interleukins

A

Increase WBC production

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57
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Blood cell production

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58
Q

RBC degradation

A 
Damaged RBC are consumed by macrophages 
Occurs in spleen/liver 
Digest RBC
Bilirubin in the blood
Filtered by kidney > excreted in urine
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59
Q

Bilirubin

A

Incorporated into bile in liver
Excreted
Color feces

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60
Q

Jaundice

A

Decrease in bilirubin excretion

Increase in bilirubin in blood

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61
Q

Anemia

A 
RBC disorder 
1. Blood loss
2. Hemolytic anemia 
    > cytoskeletal defects
    > hemoglobin defects (sickle cell)
    > parasitic infection 
    > autoimmune disease 
    > drugs 
3. Decrease RBC production 
    > iron deficiency 
    > vitamin deficiency (folic acid, B-12) 
    > certain drugs 
4. Kidney problems 
    > decrease EPO production 
    > decrease RBC
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62
Q

Polycythemia Vera

A 
Overproduction of RBC 
Stem cell dysfunction 
Hematocrit 60-70% 
 > increase blood velocity 
 > increase flow resistance 
 > decrease O2 delivery 
 > increase pressure (strain on heart)
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63
Q

Secretory vesicles

A

Contain cytokines (growth-factors)
> stimulate growth to seal the ruptured area
Contain ATP (released into interstitial fluid)
> vasoconstrictor
> decrease blood flow
Serotonin
> vasoconstrictor

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64
Q

Coagulation

A

Platelets respond to collagen
Collagen wrapped around vessels
Collagen stimulates a receptor on platelets that cause vessels to fuse with PM
Release vasoconstrictor: cytokinesis
Platelets stick to collagen and begin forming a plug
Release thromboxane A2 (induces platelet sticking)
Induces blood clotting

65
Q

Final stage

A

Thrombin (enzyme)
Fibrinogen into fibrin
X-link protein is factor 13 (XIII)

66
Q

Prothrombinase

A

Factor X and thromboplastin

Can convert prothrombin into thrombin

67
Q

Antithrombrin III

A

Prevents clots

Basophils > heparin (anticoagulant)

68
Q

Thrombmodulin

A

Promote the breakdown of fibrin

Plasmin > digest clots

69
Q

Prostaglandins

A

Required for clot formation

70
Q

Respiration

A
  1. Ventilation of the lungs
  2. Exchange of gas between the lungs and blood (gas in blood)
  3. Transport of gas in the blood
  4. Exchange of gases in the blood and the tissues (gas out of the blood)
71
Q

Conducting system

A
  1. Mouth and nose
  2. Pharynx and larynx
  3. Trachea (large pressure changes)
  4. Primary bronchi (reinforced)
  5. Secondary bronchi (semi-rigid)
  6. Bronchioles (wrapped by SM)
    > control air flow (regulation)
  7. Terminal bronchioles
  8. Alveoli (end sack) (gas exchange)
72
Q

Pressure velocity

A

High at trachea/bronchi

Low at bronchioles/alveoli

73
Q

Alveoli

A 
Single cell layer 
Type I: very abundant 
Very thin 
Gas exchange 
Type II: thicker 
Secrete surfactants (detergent)
Not as abundant
74
Q

Detergent

A

Decrease surface tension
Decrease cohesion
Prevents alveoli from sticking and collapsing

75
Q

Gas laws

A
  1. Total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum pressures of the individual gases (Dalton’s law)
  2. Gases move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
  3. Boyle’s law: P1V1 = P2V2
    Ideal gas law: PV = nRT
76
Q

Factors that influence the amount of the gas that can be dissolved in a fluid

A
  1. Gas pressure (gradient) (regulate)
  2. Gas solubility (constant)
  3. Temperature (constant)
77
Q

Process the air

A
  1. Conducting system has very high surface area
  2. Bring gas to body temperate (usually warming)
  3. Bring gas to 100% humidity (saturated with water) > can’t afford to dry out endothelial cells
  4. Clean the gas > lining of conducting system produces mucus, has cilia that beat in one direction
    Create a conveyer belt moving the mucus out of the lungs
78
Q

Cystic fibrosis

A

Broken Cl channels
Lungs cannot produce fluid
Mucus gets too thick > cilia can’t move
Mucus builds up in the lungs > decrease gas exchange > pulmonary infection

79
Q

Lungs (alveoli)

A

Expand during inspiration (compliance)

Return to resting volume during expiration (elasticity)

80
Q

Emphysema

A

Destroys elastic fibers

Lung is compliant but no recoil (difficult to exhale)

81
Q

Fibrotic lung disease

A

Loss of compliance

Difficult to inhale

82
Q

Ventilation

A

Inspiration > air flow follows the changes in pressure
Rest: atmospheric pressure = intrapulmonary pressure (no air flow)
Muscles in thoracic cage contract > pull on the pleural membrane > force is transmitted to the pleural fluid > pulls on the alveoli
Rapture the pleural membrane > nothing pulling on lung tissue > due to elastic nature it collapses
Increase volume in lungs > decrease pressure in lungs
Atmospheric pressure is greater than the intrapulmonary pressure

83
Q

Ventilation 2

A

Airflow from atmosphere > lungs > contraction stops > pressure equilibrates

84
Q

Expiration

A

Lack of contraction
Relaxation is passive
Elasticity decreases lung volume > increases lung pressure
Lung intrapulmonary pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure

85
Q

Regulate frequency and depth

A

Respiratory control center (medulla)
A. Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
B. Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

86
Q

Quiet respiration

A

DRG controls activity of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm (rhythmic increase in AP frequency) > stimulate skeletal muscle for inspiration
VRG is inactive

87
Q

Force respiration

A

DRG AP increases in freq.
stimulates VRG
Increase force of inspiration
Stimulation of VRG provides forced expiration (internal intercostal muscles)

88
Q

Control of respiratory center

A 
1. Apneustic center (pons) 
Stimulate DRG
2. Pneumotaxic center (pons) 
Inhibits Apneustic center 
These neurons receive sensory info > O2, CO2, pH
89
Q

Increase activity of pneumotaxic center

A

Result will be short and shallow ventilation

90
Q

Decrease activity of pneumotaxic center

A

Result will be slow deep ventilation

91
Q

Physical and chemical stimuli in the lungs

A 
Irritants 
Temperature 
Pain 
Water 
Trigger apnea protective reflexes 
Coughing/sneezing 
Reflex ability to stop respiration during swallowing/vomiting
92
Q

Hering-Brewer reflex

A

Inflation reflex
Prevents over inflation during forced inhalation
Sensors send AP to both Apneustic center and DRG
AP to VRG > excitatory (promote exhalation)
Increase stretch > increase AP frequently in lungs
> make it increasingly difficult for the DRG to stimulate the muscles

93
Q

Deflation reflex

A

Prevent over deflation during forced exhalation

Sensors fire AP to the VRG > inhibitory synapse blocks the VRG > end exhalation

94
Q

Lung volume capacity

A

TIDAL volume: normal volume of air exchanged per breath at rest (500 mL)
INSPIRATORY reserve: additional volume during forced inhalation (2500 mL)
EXPIRATORY reserve: additional volume during forced exhalation (1000 mL)
RESIDUAL volume: volume of air remaining in the lungs at the end of max forced exhalation (1000 mL)
VITAL capacity: max total volume that can be exchanged (4800 mL)
TOTAL LUNG capacity: vital capacity + residual volume (6000 mL)
DEAD SPACE: volume of gas residing in the conducting airways (no gas exchange)
Tidal volume must exceed dead space

95
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

CO2 + H2O ↔️ H + HCO3

Increase CO2 > increase H (decrease pH)

96
Q

Bronchiole tubes (air flow)

A

Increase CO2: dilate
Decrease CO2: constrict
Increase O2: constrict
Decrease O2: dilate

97
Q

Pulmonary arterioles (blood flow in lungs)

A

Increase CO2: constrict
Decrease CO2: dilate
Increase O2: dilate
Decrease O2: constrict

98
Q

Systemic arterioles

Blood flow periphery

A

Increase CO2: dilate
Decrease CO2: constrict
Increase O2: constrict
Decrease O2: dilate

99
Q

Chemoreceptors

A
  1. CO2/pH sensors
  2. O2
    HO-2 heme oxygenase
100
Q

Heme oxygenase

A 
Decrease O2 
Produces CO
Activates qua cyclase 
GTP > cGMP
cGMP > inhibits K channel 
 > depolarize 
 > activate v-gated Ca channel (increase Ca influx, release NT) 
Fire AP to the respiration control center
101
Q

Hypoxia-inducible factor

A

HIF alpha
HIF beta
Both dimer (transcription factor)
Hypoxia stimulate growth of blood vessels
Up regulation of glycolytic enzymes
Stimulate EPO production/increase RBC production

102
Q

Regulation of respiration

A

Primary signal is pH (99.99%)

103
Q

Gas exchange

A
  1. Rate of diffusion for a gas is directly proportional to partial pressure concentration gradient
  2. ” “ directly proportional to the available surface area
  3. ” “ directly proportional to distance
104
Q

Total gas pressure

A

Sea level: 760 mmHg
Atmosphere: 593 mmHg nitrogen
160 mmHg oxygen
0.25 mmHg CO2

105
Q

O2 transport in blood

A

Free dissolved O2 (2% total) (usable fraction)
98% of the O2 is carried bound to the Hb inside the RBC
O2 diffuse from the alveoli to the interstitial fluid
O2 diffuse from interstitial fluid to the blood inside the capillary
O2 diffuse from the capillary to inside the RBC (bind to Hb)
Hb is an oxygen buffer (binds O2 when the O2 is high, releases O2 when the O2 is low)

106
Q

Hemoglobin

A

4 subunits (centered around an iron)
4 O2 binding sites
Fetal/adult

107
Q

Factors that influence O2 binding to Hb

A
  1. Concentration gradient
  2. pH (Bohr Effect)
    Decrease pH > decrease Hb affinity for O2
    Increase pH > increase “ “
  3. Temperature
    Decrease temp > increase “ “
    Increase temp > decrease “ “
  4. Organo-phosphates (glycolytic byproducts)
    2,3-diphosphoglycerate
    Increase 2,3-DPG > decrease Hb affinity for O2
108
Q

How does an active tissue induce Hb to release O2?

A
  1. Active cell produce a lot of CO2
    CO2 + H2O <> H2CO3 <> H + HCO3 (increase CO2 > decrease pH)
  2. Decrease pH will cause a decrease in Hb affinity for O2 > release O2 (Bohr effect)
109
Q

Bohr Effect

A

Cells that produce high CO2 levels also consume high levels of O2
CO2/pH as a proxy for O2 demand

110
Q

Transport of CO2

A
  1. Free dissolved CO2 (7%)
  2. Conversion of CO2 > HCO3
    CO2 + H2O <> H2CO3 <> H + HCO3 (70%)
  3. Carbamino linkages
    CO2 binding to amine groups > only when the pH decreases
    Increase CO2 > decrease pH > induces carbamino linkages
    Cl/HCO3 exchanger (band 3 protein) maintains gradient for CO2 diffusion into RBC
    Cl maintains electrical neutrality
111
Q

Unloading of CO2 at lungs

A
  1. Alveoli PCO2 is lower than pulmonary blood PCO2 (diffusion of CO2 from blood to alveoli)
  2. CO2 + H2O <> H2CO3 <> H + HCO3 (decrease CO2)
    Converting all the HCO3 back to CO2
    CO2 is free to diffuse toward alveoli
    Cl shifts in opposite direction as CO2 decreases and pH increases > cause the carbamino linkages to break > release CO2
    Hb gains affinity for O2 > Hb binds O2
112
Q

Pulmonary

A

Increase pH (decrease CO2)
O2 binds
CO2 is released

113
Q

Systemic

A

Increase CO2 (decrease pH)
Release O2
Bind CO2

114
Q

Ventilation

A

Maintain PCO2 at the alveoli
pH drives ventilation
Increase activity > increase CO2 production, decrease pH
Respiratory sensors cause ventilation to increase

115
Q

Hyperventilation

A

Increase alveoli ventilation above and beyond requirements
Decrease PCO2 beyond normal level
pH increase higher than normal
pH influences Hb O2 binding affinity
Hb binds O2 with greater affinity
Increase in pH Hb does not release O2 (start starving tissue of O2, CNS stutters due to drop in ATP)

116
Q

Hyperventilation summed up

A 
Decrease lung PCO2 (too far) 
Decrease blood PCO2 (too far) 
Increase blood pH (too far) 
Increase Hb affinity for O2 too much (can't let go) 
Decrease O2 delivery to tissues
117
Q

Metabolic acidosis

A

Respiratory compensation
Decrease PCO2 lower
pH increases

118
Q

Metabolic alkalosis

A

Vomiting (loss of acid)
Body fluids pH increases
Respiratory compensation: decrease ventilation, increase PCO2, pH decreases

119
Q

Asthma

A 
Hypersensitive bronchiole SM
Over constricts 
Increase air flow resistance 
Decrease ventilation in lungs 
Inflammatory signals, histamines, leukotrienes, Ach cause bronchiole SM to constrict
120
Q

Treatment for asthma

A

Anti histamine
Beta-adrenergic receptor agonists (sympathetic) cause relaxation
Inhalers
Blockers of leukotrienes production
Steroids (anti inflammatory)
Active transcription factors
Produce a protein that blocks phospholipase A2 > makes substrate for leukotriene production

121
Q

Renal physiology

A
  1. Regulate extra cellular fluid volume
  2. Regulate osmolarity
    Increase osmolarity > decrease water conc. (Eat a big of potato chips: increase osmolarity, drink water: decrease osmolarity)
  3. Regulation of ion conc. (Na, K(influence on voltage) Cl, Ca
  4. Regulate pH (pH changes protein structure)
    Excrete excess protons
    Conserve protons (add or subtract H protons)
  5. Excretion of waste (or anything foreign)
    Urea (nitrogenous waste)
    Bilirubin (heme breakdown from RBC)
    Creatinine (breakdown of creatine)
  6. Sensory (endocrine gland)
    EPO production
    Hormones for Ca homeostasis
122
Q

Deamination

A 
Releases ammonia (NH3) 
Very toxic (liver) 
Convert NH3 into urea 
Urea is less toxic
123
Q

Uric acid

A

By product of purine breakdown
Much less soluble
Birds/reptiles > Uric excretion
Uric acid precipitates on shell during development

124
Q

Renal fascia

A

Collagen fibers that extend from renal capsule and anchor to the peritoneum

125
Q

Nephrons

A

Functional unit of kidney

126
Q

Glomerulus

A

Filtration
Fluid out
Modified capillary

127
Q

Peritubular capillary

A

Reabsorption occurs
Fluid back in
Coalesce > renal vein > exist kidney

128
Q

Bowman’s capsule

A

Surrounds glomerulus and is the collection point for the filtrate
Filtrate is essentially blood minus RBC, WBC, platelets, and big proteins
180 liters/day
Recreate entire fluid phase of blood 60 times a day

129
Q

Proximal tubule

A

Nutrient reabsorption

End of proximal tubule: 54 liters/day

130
Q

Loop of Henle

A 
Create an osmotic gradient (induces osmosis) 
Promotes retention of water 
End of loop: 18 liters/day 
99% of blood is in the cortex 
1% of blood flow to the medulla
131
Q

Distal tubule

A

Fine tune urine conc.
K
pH
Ca

132
Q

Collecting duct

A

Regulated water permeability
Control the amount of water reabsorbed
Uses gradient created by the loop of Henle
1.5 liters/day (becomes urine)

133
Q

Kidney process

A
  1. Filtration
  2. Reabsorption (from urine to blood)
  3. Secretion (from blood to urine)
  4. Excretion (urination aka micturition)
134
Q

Filtration route

A
  1. In plasma
  2. Cross the endothelium of the glomerulary capillary
  3. Cross basement membrane (connective tissue)
  4. Epithelia of Bowman’s capsule (enters lumen of capsule)
135
Q

Bowman’s Capsule epithelia

A

Prodocyte (foot)

Wrap around the capillary

136
Q

Slits

A

Gaps between the podocytes
Dictate filtration resistance
Increase size of slits > decrease resistance > more filtrate

137
Q

Mesangial cells

A

Contractile
Pull on podocytes
Regulate the slit size and resistance
Phagocytitic >consume clogged debris that gathers in the slits (keep filter clean)

138
Q

Force driving filtration at the glomerulus

A

Blood pressure: 50 mmHg + (favors filtration)
Bowman’s capsule: 15 mmHg - (works against filtration)
Osmotic pressure gradient: 25 mmHg -
Total net pressure: 10 mmHg +

139
Q

Glomerular filtration rate

A
  1. Net filtration pressure
  2. Slit resistance
  3. Surface area (how much is available)
    Average GFR is 125 mL/min
140
Q

Renal blood flow

A

Increase flow rate through the glomerulus (no change in blood pressure)
Blood pressure stays at 50 mmHg
Bowman’s capsule stays at 15 mmHg
Increase flow rate > less change in OP > Change in pressure decreases > net pressure increases

141
Q

Constrict afferent arteriole

A

Decrease blood pressure at glomerulus
Decrease flow rate
Decrease GFR

142
Q

Dilate afferent arteriole

A

Increase blood pressure at glomerulus
Increase flow rate
Increase GFR

143
Q

Dilate both afferent and efferent arterioles

A 
No change in blood pressure 
Increase flow (decrease OP) 
Increase GFR
144
Q

Regulatory routes

A
  1. Auto regulation (myogenic, SM)
  2. Auto regulation (tubulo glomerular) flow rate of a fluid through the nephron
  3. Hormonal
  4. Autonomic nerves
145
Q

Myogenic auto regulation

A

Maintain GFR despite changes in local blood pressure/flow
Reflex changes by the vascular SM
Endothelial cells produce paracrine signals
A. Constrict (decrease pressure/flow)
B. Dilate (increase pressure/flow)

146
Q

Tubuloglomerular auto-regulation

A

Regulating GFR based on rate of flow through the nephron flow is too fast
Autonomically decrease GFR to slow down the rate the filtrate is entering the nephron
Giving the nephron time to reabsorb all the essential nutrients
Flow is measured by distal tubule

147
Q

Regulation of GFR

A
  1. Myogenic auto regulation
  2. Tubularglomerular auto regulation
    Based on flow rate of fluid through the nephron
    Sensor is the macula densa cells of the distal tubule
148
Q

Example of regulation of GFR

A
  1. Increase GFR
  2. Increase flow rate through the nephrons
  3. Increase flow at macula densa
  4. Distal tubule reabsorbs Na
    > increase flow > increase Na availability > increase Na transport > cause a voltage change at the macula densa (signal)
  5. Cause the release of a paracrine vasoconstrictor
  6. Afferent arteriole constricts
    > increase flow resistance > decrease glomerular pressure > decrease flow to the glomerulus
  7. Decrease GFR
149
Q

Autonomic regulation

A
  1. Both afferent/efferent arterioles are innervate by sympathetic neurons > release NE > SM - alpha adrenergic receptors
  2. Activation of receptor causes vasoconstriction
    Decrease blood pressure > decrease flow > decrease GFR
150
Q

GFR issues

A 
Endurance athletes 
Chronic vasoconstriction at glomerulus 
Wastes accumulate
Low O2 at kidneys 
Glomerular damage
151
Q

Liver damage

A

Decrease plasma protein
Decrease blood OP
Unusually high GFR

152
Q

Reabsorption at proximal tubules

A

Excrete 1.5 liters per day
Reabsorb 178.5 liters per day
Anything not selected remains in the nephron and becomes urine (urea, bilirubin, Uric acid, anything not recognized)

153
Q

Transcytosis

A

Small proteins can fit through the glomerular slits and enter Bowman’s capsule
P.T. Cells can bind proteins and encapsulate into endocytosis vesicles

154
Q

Renal physiology

A

P.T. > reabsorption > Na linked nutrient transport > transcytosis > water by osmosis

155
Q

Clearance

A

The ability of the kidneys to clean or clear the plasma (blood) of a certain substance
Clearance of Uric acid should be very high
Clearance of glucose should be very low

156
Q

Inulin

A

Modified sugar
Filtered but no reabsorption
Clearance of inulin = GFR

157
Q

PAH (para amino huyperic acid)

A

Filtered and totally secreted
No reabsorption
Clearance of PAH = total renal blood flow
If clearance exceeds GFR > substance is secreted
If clearance is less than GFR > substance is reabsorbed

158
Q

Holding your breath

A

Increase PCO2

Decrease pH > stimulates ventilation

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