Biopsychology - Paper 2

Question 1

What is the nervous system?

Answer 1

A specialised network of cells, primary internal communication system: collects, processes & responds to info in environment & coordinates working of different organs & cells.

Question 2

What is the CNS?
What does the brain do?
What does the spinal cord do?

Answer 2

1) The origin of complex commands & decisions. Passes messages to & from brain & connects nerves to the PNS.
2) Brain: centre of conscious awareness (cerebral cortex is outer layer of brain & is what distinguishes human mental functions from those of animals).
3) The Spinal Cord: extension of brain, responsible for reflex actions. It passes messages to & from brain & connects nerves to the PNS.

Question 3

Describe the division of the brain.

Answer 3

The brain is divided into two hemispheres - the left and the right. Each hemisphere has four lobes - frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal.

Question 4

What is the peripheral nervous system?

Answer 4

It transmits messages via millions of neurons (nerve cells), to & from the CNS. It is subdivided into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.

Question 5

What is the autonomic nervous system?

Answer 5

This governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion & stress responses - involuntary effect.
Divided into sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems.

Question 6

What is the stomatic nervous system?

Answer 6

This transmits info from receptor cells in the sense organs to the central nervous system. It receives info from the CNS that directs muscles to act - voluntary effect.

Question 7

What is the sympathetic nervous system?
What does it do to the body?

Answer 7

1) A division of the ANS which activates internal organs (fight or flight response) and decreases bodily functions.
2) Increase heart rate & breathing rate. Inhibits digestion & saliva production. Dilates pupils.

Question 8

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
What does it do to the body?

Answer 8

1) A division of the ANS which controls the relaxed state (rest and digest), conserving resources & promoting digestion and metabolism.
2) Decreases heart rate & breathing rate. Stimulates digestion & saliva production. Constricts pupils.

Question 9

What are the divisions of the human nervous system?

Answer 9

1) Human nervous system.
2) Divides into CNS & Peripheral nervous system.
3) CNS divides into brain & spinal cord
4) Peripheral nervous system divides into autonomic & stomatic nervous system.
4) Autonomic nervous system divides into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

Question 10

1) What is the endocrine system?
2) What is a gland?
3) What is a hormone?

Answer 10

1) 1 of body’s major info systems, instruct glands to release hormones directly into blood streams - hormones are carried towards target organs in body.
2) An organ in body that syntheses (makes) substances such as hormones.
3) Chemical substances that circulate in bloodstream & only affect target organs - produced in large quantities but disappear quickly, effects are powerful - chemical messengers.

Question 11

Pituitary gland:
1) Hormone released?
2) Impact?

Answer 11

1) Many hormones.
2) Known as master gland bc of hormones released by the pituitary gland control & stimulate release of hormones from other glands in endocrine system.

Question 12

Pineal and thyroid gland:
1) Hormone released?
2) Impact?

Answer 12

Pineal:
1) Melatonin.
2) Responsible for important biological rhythms, including the sleep- wake cycle.

Thyroid:
1) Thyroxin.
2) Responsible for regulating metabolism.

Question 13

Testes & Ovaries:
1) Hormones released?
2) Impact?

Answer 13

Testes:
1) Testosterone.
2) Responsible for the development of male sex characteristics during puberty while also promoting muscle growth.

Ovaries:
1) Oestrogen.
2) Controls the regulation of the female reproductive system, including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

Question 14

Adrenal gland and pancreas:
1) Hormones released?
2) Impact?

Answer 14

Adrenal:
1) Adrenaline.
2) Responsible for fight or flight response - stimulates heart rate, contracts blood vessels, and dilates air passages among other impacts.

Pancreas:
1) Insulin.
2) Allows body to use glucose from carbohydrates in food for energy or to store glucose for future use. It helps keep blood sugar levels stable.

Question 15

What is the fight or flight response?

Answer 15

The way an animal responds when stressed, body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor, or flee. Response is reflexive - it occurs without conscious awareness or thought.

Question 16

What are the stages (9) of the response? (Both nervous & endocrine system work together)

Answer 16

1) Hypothalamus recognises there is threat in environment.
2) ANS activates SNS.
3) The SNS tells pituitary gland to release ACTH hormone.
4) Sends a message to the adrenal gland (master gland).
5) Adrenal gland responds by releasing adrenaline.
6) Adrenaline travels via bloodstream & targets organs in body which have adrenaline receptors.
7) Causes many physical changes to occur.
8) The above process is fight or flight response & allows the body to act.
9) Once threat has passed, PNS brings body back to normal, resting, functions.

Question 17

What is adrenaline?

Answer 17

A hormone produced by adrenal glands which is part of body’s stress response system- strong effect on cells of the cardiovascular system - stimulating heart rate, contracting blood vessels & dilating air passages.

Question 18

What is the direct effect of adrenaline? (6)

Answer 18

1) Increase heart rate.
2) Constructs blood vessels- increase blood pressure & rate of blood flow.
3) Diverts blood away from skin, kidneys & digestive system.
4) Increase blood to brain & skeletal muscle.
5) Increases respiration & sweating.
6) Inhibits saliva production (dry mouth).

Question 19

What is the indirect effect of adrenaline? (3)

Answer 19

1) Prepare body for action (fight or flight).
2) Increases blood supply & oxygen to skeletal muscle for physical action.
3) Increases oxygen to brain for rapid response planning.

Question 20

Fight or flight strength.

Answer 20

Stressors of modern-day life can repeatedly activate the response. If face a lot of stress & continually activate the SNS continually increase blood pressure, can cause damage to blood vessels & heart disease. Suggests that fight or flight response is a maladaptive response in modern-day life.

Question 21

Fight or fight limitations (2).

Answer 21

1) More recent research suggests females adopt ‘tend and befriend’ response in
stressful/dangerous situations. Taylor et al. (2000) found women more likely to protect offspring (tend) & form alliances with other women (befriend), rather than fight or flee. Therefore typically a male response to danger.
2) The response is biologically reductionist. It attempts to explain human behaviour based on role of adrenaline & effect of SNS. It doesn’t account for any other element that could influence a response to a stressful situation e.g cognitive processes.
Therefore too limited an explanation.

Question 22

What is a neuron?
What is the cell body?
What is the nucleus?
What are the dendrites?

Answer 22

1) Basic building blocks of nervous system, neurons are nerve cells that process & transmit messages through electrical & chemical signals.
2) Known as factory of neuron. Contains nucleus & produces all the necessary proteins a neuron requires to function.
3) Contains genetic material within neuron.
4) Branch-like features protrude from cell body & carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards cell body.

Question 23

What is an axon?
What is a myelin sheath?
What are the nodes of ranvir?
What are the terminal buttons?

Answer 23

1) Carries electrical impulse from cell body, down length of neuron. Covered in myelin sheath.
2) Fatty layer, which surrounds & protects axon. Helps speed up electrical transmission of impulse.
3) Gaps between myelin sheath. Purpose is to speed up transmission of impulse, by forcing it to ‘jump’ across gaps along axon.
4) Located at end of axon. Communicate with next neuron that is on other side of synaptic cleft.

Question 24

What is the sensory neuron’s function?
Length of axon?
Length of dendrites?

Answer 24

1) Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to spinal cord & brain (from PNS to CNS).
2) Short.
3) Long.

Question 25

What is the relay neuron’s function?
Length of axon?
Length of dendrites?

Answer 25

1) Allow sensory & motor neurons to communicate with each other. Most common type of neuron in CNS.
2) Short.
3) Short.

Question 26

What is the motor neuron’s function?
Length of axon?
Length of dendrites?

Answer 26

1) Carry nerve impulses from spinal cord & brain to effectors (muscles & glands) (from CNS to PNS).
2) Long.
3) Short.

Question 27

Definitions (synapses):
1) Synaptic transmission.
2) Neurotransmitter.
3) Synapse.
4) Synaptic Cleft.

Answer 27

1) Process, neighbouring neurons communicate, sending chemical messages across synaptic cleft that separates them.
2) Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles, relay signals across synapse 1- another neuron. Neurotransmitters broadly divided into those perform inhibitory or excitatory function.
3) Junction between neurons, includes presynaptic neuron, synaptic clef & postsynaptic receptor site.
4) Space between pre-synaptic & post-synaptic neuron.

Question 28

Definitions (synapses):
1) Synaptic Vesicles.
2) Pre-synaptic neuron.
3) Post-synaptic neuron.
4) Post-synaptic receptor site.

Answer 28

1) Small sacs on end of presynaptic neuron contain neurotransmitters that be released into a synapse.
2) Transmitting neuron, before synaptic cleft.
3) Neuron that receiving the info at synapse.
4) Receptor on post-synaptic neuron. Neurotransmitter locks into specitic receptor on post-synaptic neuron & triggers electrical impulse in post-synaptic neuron.

Question 29

Describe the process (5 steps) of synaptic transmission. (4 marks)

Answer 29

1) Action potential arrives at pre-synaptic neuron.
2) As result, vesicles (containing neurotransmitters) diffuse towards pre-synaptic membrane.
3) Vesicles bind the pre-synaptic membrane & neurotransmitters released.
4) Neurotransmitters chemically diffuse across synapse.
5) Neurotransmitters bind to complementary receptors on post-synaptic neuron membrane & electrical impulse is subsequently passed on.

Question 30

Describe the process (10 steps) of synaptic transmission (6 marks).

Answer 30

1) Electrical impulse travels down pre-synaptic neuron, along axon & to terminal buttons of neuron.
2) When electrical impulse gets to terminal branches, stimulates synaptic vesicles (contain neurotransmitters = chemicals).
3) Neurotransmitters released from synaptic vesicles & travel across synapse. This when electrical impulse changes to chemical impulse.
4) Neurotransmitters cross synapse to get to dendrites of post-synaptic neuron.
5) Receptors on dendrites of post-synaptic neuron (known as lock, in the lock & key theory).
6) If neurotransmitters (key) are correct shape, they fit into receptors on dendrites of post-synaptic neuron.
7) Connection between neurotransmitter & receptor can cause electrical impulse be created in dendrites of post-synaptic neuron (depends on whether neurotransmitters are excitatory/inhibitory).
8) If neurotransmitter excitatory = more likely electrical impulse will travel down post-synaptic neuron & process begin over again.
9) Neurotransmitter doesn’t always fit into receptors. If case, will be no electrical impulse created in 2nd neuron.
10) Above process known as synaptic transmission.

Question 31

1) What is excitation?
2) What is inhibition?
3) What is summation?

Answer 31

1) Increases the likelihood of neuron firing action potential (becomes positively charged). E.g. adrenaline.
2) Decreaes the likelihood of neuron firing action potential (becomes negatively charged). E.g. serotonin.
3) When excitatory & inhibitory (multiple happening at once) summed up, decide whether action potential is fired.

Question 32

What are the 2 effects drugs can have on synaptic transmission?

Answer 32

1) Increases amount of neurotransmitters - block re-uptake channels, e.g. SSRI’s in OCD. Serotonin (too little causes OCD) remains in synapse & bind w more receptors.
2) Decreases amount of neurotransmitters - block the receptors. E.g. Antipsychotics (too much causes it) & schizophrenia. Prevent dopamine binding.

Question 33

What does a Functional Magnetic Resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner do?

Answer 33

Measures brain activity through measuring blead flow in brain when a person persorms a task.

Question 34

What are the strengths and limitations of fMRIs? (2 each)

Answer 34

Strengths:
1) ^ spatial resolution
- more accuracy & detail.
2) Non- invasive technique (no radiation) - safe.

Limitations:
1) Expensive - less opportunities for participants to take part in research.
2) Poor temporal resolution - 5 second lag.

Question 35

What does an Electroencephalogram (EEG) do?

Answer 35

It records tiny electrical impulses produced by the brain’s activity - it measures wave patterns to diagnose certain conditions.

Question 36

What are the strengths (2) & limitations (1) of an EEG?

Answer 36

Strengths:
1) high temporal resolution- moment to moment of Brian activity (every millisecond).
2) in-expensive method- conduct more studies, more people take part.

Limitations:
1) Low spatial resolution- not complete picture of the brain.

Question 37

What does an Event-related potentials (ERPs) do?

Answer 37

Brain’s electrophysiology response to a specific sensory cognitive or motor event- can be
isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data- look for activity related to stimulus.

Question 38

What are the strengths & limitations of ERPs? (2 each)

Answer 38

Strengths:
1) excellent temporal resolution (every millisecond).
2) Very specific measurements of neural processes- more specific than EEG, better at investigating brain.

Limitations:
1) Lack standardisation
between studies- difficult to confirm reliability.
2) Background noise & extraneous material must be completely eliminated- not easy to do, limits appropriateness of method.

Question 39

What does a post-mortem examination do?

Answer 39

Examine abnormalities in structure of brain which try explain psychological abnormalities that people have before death. Also involve comparison w neurotypical (normal) brain to ascertain extent of difference.

Question 40

What are the strengths & limitations of post-mortem examinations? (2 each)

Answer 40

Strengths:
1) Allow more in depth study of structures of brain- hypothalamus.
2) Broca & Wernicke relied on methods to look at language areas in brain.

Limitations:
1) Damage to brain may be due to decay, not deficits, causation issue.
2) Ethical issue - informed consent, can’t always give it, lack capacity to do so when alive.

Question 41

What is the definition of localisation?

Answer 41

The theory that specific areas of the brain are associated with particular physical and psychological functions.

Question 42

What is the holistic theory of brain function?
What is the reductionist theory of brain function?

Answer 42

1) All parts of the brain are involved in processing thought & action.
2) Theory of localisation + damage to any areas causes a change in behaviour.

Question 43

What are the three layers of the brain and what do they contain?

Answer 43

1) Central core (brain stem) contains hypothalamus structure.
2) Limbi system controls emotions and contains hippocampus structure (is around central core).
3) Cerebrum is 3rd layer around central core. Contains left & right hemispheres (each contain temporal, frontal, occipital and parietal lobes).

Question 44

What does the left hemisphere control?
What does the right hemisphere control?

Answer 44

1) Right side of the body.
2) Left side of the body.

Question 45

Which lobes are these sections in?
1) Motor Cortex.
2) Somatosensory Cortex.
3) Visual Cortex.
4) Auditory Cortex.
5) Broca’s Area
6) Wernicke’s
area.

Answer 45

1) Back of frontal lobe.
2) Front of parietal lobe.
3) Occipital lobe.
4) Temporal lobe.
5) Frontal lobe- left only!
6) Temporal lobe - left only!

Question 46

What role does each section have?
1) Motor Cortex.
2) Somatosensory Cortex
3) Visual Cortex.
4) Auditory Cortex.
5) Broca’s Area
6) Wernicke’s
area.

Answer 46

1) Sends nerve impulses to our muscles.
2) Processes sensory info from the skin.
3) Receives & processes info from the optic nerve (eye).
4) Analyses speech-based info.
5) Responsible for speech production.
6) Responsible for comprehension of speech.

Question 47

What will happen if any of these get damaged?
1) Motor Cortex.
2) Somatosensory Cortex
3) Visual Cortex.
4) Auditory Cortex.
5) Broca’s Area
6) Wernicke’s
area.

Answer 47

1) Loss of muscle movement to corresponding side.
2) Loss of sensation (can’t feel heat, touch or pressure).
3) Loss in visual field (loss in sight).
4) Loss of hearing (not always fully deaf).
5) Difficulty producing speech, can lack fluency.
6) Difficulty understanding speech, can produce nonsense words.

Question 48

Summary of Phineas Gage case study? (3 points)

Answer 48

1) Iron poke through cheek, past left eye & out top of head - took out most of frontal lobe.
2) Survived damage but went from calm & reserved to quick-tempered & rude.
3) Localisation of function - suggests left frontal lobe may be responsible for regulating mood.

Question 49

Strengths of localisation of the brain? (2)

Answer 49

1) Brain scanning evidence. Wernicke’s area active during listening tests & Broca’s area during reading. Review of LTM revealed semantic & episodic memory reside in different parts of prefrontal cortex, suggests parts of brain has different functions. Increases validity.
2) Neurosurgical evidence. Damage to certain areas linked to mental disorders. Cingulotomy (procedure) isolated region called cingulate gryus (implicated in OCD) & is lesions. Follow-up after surgery, 32 weeks showed 30% successful response & 14% partial response. Symptoms & behaviours associated with OCD are localised.

Question 50

Combo-whopper about localisation of brain?

Answer 50

Case studies - localisation vs holistic theory.

Strength:
Gage had pole go through brain & took out most of left frontal lobe, personality went from calm to quick-tempered. Proves localisation in brain as proves left frontal lobe regulates mood.

Limitation:
However is generalised. Findings only from 1 person & is subjective. A girl is able to survive with half brain, suggesting not localised as can function without half of it. Supporting holistic theory, not localisation.

Question 51

Limitation of localisation of the brain?

Answer 51

Karl Lashley challenges it. Evidence to suggest some higher cognitive functions are distributed in holistic way. Lashley (1950) removed areas of cortex in rats learning a maze. No area proved more important than other in ability to learn maze. Process of learning seems to require all parts of cortex, not particular area, suggesting higher cognitive process, not localised. Suggests learning too complex to be localised &
involves whole brain.

Question 52

What is hemispheric lateralisation?
What is contra lateral?

Answer 52

1) Same mental processes in the brain are mainly specialised to the left or right hemisphere.
2) opposite side of the body to the brain hemisphere that controls it.

Question 53

What is the corpus callosum?

Answer 53

Broad bonds of fibres that joins two hemispheres of brain & allows communication to occur. Cutting it means info can’t be passed between the 2 hemispheres.

Question 54

What is the research behind hemispheric lateralisation?

Answer 54

Began in 1960s, epileptic patients. Severed corpus callosum to control frequent epileptic fits. Allows to investigate to what extent which brain function is lateralised.

Question 55

What is Sperry’s (split-brain research) aim and participants?

Answer 55

Aim- examine the extent to which 2 hemispheres are specialised for certain functions.
Participants- 11 participants, epilepsy that couldn’t be treated with drugs & already had CC split, compared to no hemispheric lateralisation patients.

Question 56

What was Sperry’s methods and variations?

Answer 56

Method- image/word projected to patient’s left visual field & processed by right hemisphere or other way around. When info presented to 1 hemisplere in split - brain patient, info isn’t transferred to other hemisphere.
Variations-
1) drawing- right draw word ‘saw’ but not say.
2) tactile objects- right get left hand to pick up correct object from a selection.
3) facial recognition- right better, left saw fruits.

Question 57

What are Sperry’s conclusions? (4)

Answer 57

1) left is dominant in speech & language.
2) right dominant in visual & motor tasks (like drawing).
3) in patients, hemispheres of brain processes info separately.
4) do have different functions.

Question 58

What does plasticity mean?
What does synaptic pruning mean?
What does synaptic bridging mean?

Answer 58

1) Brain’s tendency to change & adapt (functionally & physically) as result of experience & new learning.
2) where connections are lost due to lack of use.
3) where connections are strengthened or created due to use or new stimulus.

Question 59

What are Maguire et al’s:
Aim?
Procedure?
Findings?
Conclusions?

Answer 59

1) examine whether structural changes could be detected in brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation.
2) MRIs 16 male London taxi drivers compared to 50 non-taxi drivers (quasi experiment as Iv already exists & can’t be manipulated and matched pairs design).
3) taxi drivers- larger hippocampus than control group (part of brain associated with development of spatial & navigational skills). Positive correlation.
4) evidence for structural changes in brian & differences between hippocampi. Suggests extensive practice with spatial navigation affects the hippocampus.

Question 60

What is functional recovery?

Answer 60

The brain’s ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by damaged area(s) to other undamaged area (s).

Question 61

What is the law of equipotentiality?
What is the neural unmasking?
What is the reformation of blood vessels?

Answer 61

1) Secondary neural circuits surrounding damaged area become activated. Brain rewires & reorganises itself by forming new synaptic connections close to damage.
2) Neural activation of ‘dormant’ synapses to compensate for damaged areas of brain.
3) Part of haemodynamic response, where activated areas experience higher blood deoxygenation level.

Question 62

What is axonal sprouting?
What is neural reorganisation?
What is the recruitment of homologous areas?

Answer 62

1) Growth of new nerve endings, connect with other undamaged nerve cells, form new neuronal pathways.
2) Transfer of functions to undamaged areas.
3) Use of similar areas on opposite side of brain to perform specific tasks.

Question 63

What is a strength and a limitation of plasticity and functional recovery?

Answer 63

Strength- plasticity is demonstrated in brain. Kuhn (2013) got participants to play super Mario for 30 mins per day over 2 months. Compared to control group who didn’t play video games. Showed significant interest increase in grey matter. So plasticity changed the structure of the brain through learning & experience.
Limitation- Individual differences in plasticity. Research suggests older people have reduced plasticity. Therefore those who suffer brain trauma may need more care (physical therapy). Reduces generalisability of the research done as everyone’s brain is different.

Question 64

Combo evaluation paragraph for plasticity and functional recovery?

Answer 64

Supporting evidence for functional recovery. Danielli et al (2013) describes a case study of a boy who had entire left hemisphere removed at 2&1/2 years. Boy initially lost ability to speak which was regained after 2 years.
However difficult to generalise results due to subjective nature of interpretations. Reduces validity of supporting evidence for functional recovery.

Question 65

Siffre’s:
Aim?
Procedure?
Findings?
Conclusion?

Answer 65

1) Originally for a geological expedition, then investigated circadian rhythms.
2) Team couldn’t contact him, so hedidn’t know what time it was. He did 2 tests: pulse & “psychological test”- took him 5 mins to count to 120s.
3) Prolonged exposure to exogenous zeitgebers, cycle becomes disrupted - 24h to 24h & 30 mins.
4) Therefore demonstrates “there was an internal clock independent of the natural terrestrial 11 day/night cycle.”

Question 66

DeCoursey et al:
Aim?
Procedure?
Findings?
Conclusion?

Answer 66

1) influence of SCN.
2) destroy SCN connections in brain of 30 chipmunks, then returned to natural habitat & observed for 80 days.
3) Sleep wake cycle disappeared & by end of study, significant proportion killed by predators.
4) Emphasises role of SCN in establishing & maintaining circadian sleep wake cycle.