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Psychology > Approaches - Paper 2 > Flashcards

Approaches - Paper 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of introspection?

A

1st experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures.

systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus

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2
Q

What is Wilhelm Wundt known for?

A

Being the ‘father of psychology’ as he moved from philosophy to scientific psychology - used introspection.

he set up the first psychology lab in Germany in the 1870s- be really specific

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3
Q

What sort of experiment did Wundt conduct?

A

Used introspection to get people to ‘look into’ their own mental and emotional status to gain knowledge about themselves.

promoted it as a way for studying mental processes -> paved the way for later controlled research & study of mental processes (cognitive psychologists)

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4
Q

Why did Watson criticise introspection? How did he fix these concerns?

A

Because it was too ‘subjective’ and varied among individuals.
He proposed a scientific approach (behaviourist) to study phenomenon that could be observed and measured.

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5
Q

What is Sigmund Freud’s main belief?

A

The events of our childhood have a great influence on adult lives (personality). Past traumatic experiences leads to problems during adulthood.

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6
Q

What is Sigmund Freud best known for?

A

Developing psychoanalysis- treating mental health disorders by exploring unconscious thoughts and feelings.

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7
Q

Explain Sigmund Freuds theory on unconscious mind.

A

The mind’s structure and function, used analogy of iceberg, mind has 3 levels.

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8
Q

Explain Sigmund Freuds theory on personality.

A

The id, ego and superego make up the personality.

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9
Q

Explain Sigmund Freuds theory on dream analysis.

A

A window to the unconscious mind and developed methods for analysing dream for repressed desires and thoughts.

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10
Q

Explain Sigmund Freuds theory on psychosexual development.

A

Early childhood shaped adult personality (oral, anal, phallic, latency & genital).

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11
Q

Explain Sigmund Freuds theory on defence mechanisms.

A

Repression and projection. Ego handles tension & conflict, id & superego- demands on reality.

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12
Q

What is the iceberg model that Sigmund Freud uses?

A

1) conscious mind is the tip of the iceberg (memories, thoughts perceptions & stored knowledge).
2) preconscious mind- look into water, see some of it.
3) unconscious mind- fears, violent motives, shameful experiences, selfish needs & traumatic experiences.

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13
Q

What is the id and what does it do?

A

It is the primitive part of the personality.
From 0-18 months.
Operates on pleasure principle.
It is selfish & demands instant gratification of it needs.

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14
Q

What is the ego and what does it do?

A

Between 18 months- 3 years.
Operates on reality principle.
Is mediator between the id and superego- reduces conflict between demands.

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15
Q

What is the superego and what does it do?

A

The internalised sense of right & wrong.
Between 3-6 years, end of phallic stage.
Operates on morality principle - represents moral standards.

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16
Q

What are defence mechanisms?

A

When reality is distorted to reduce anxiety.
The anxiety weakens the ego so it cannot mediate between the id & superego.

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17
Q

What are the three types of defence mechanisms? (explain)

A

1) repression- blocking out an unpleasant memory.
2) denial- refusal to accept reality/something that has happened.
3) displacement- redirecting emotions onto other objects or people.

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18
Q

What is the oral psychosexual stage?
What does it lead to if there is unresolved conflict?

A

0-1 years, focus of pleasure is mouth (mother’s breast).
Leads to smoking, biting nails, sarcasm, critical behaviour.

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19
Q

What is the anal psychosexual stage?
What does it lead to if there is unresolved conflict?

A

1-3 years, focus of pleasure is anus (withholding & expelling faeces).
Retentive- perfectionist, obsessive.
Expulsive- thoughtless, messy.

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20
Q

What is the phallic psychosexual stage?
What does it lead to if there is unresolved conflict?

A

3-5 years, focus of pleasure is genital area (Oedipus or Electra complex).
Narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual.

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21
Q

What is the latency psychosexual stage?

A

When earlier conflicts are repressed.

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22
Q

What is the genital psychosexual stage? What does it lead to if there is unresolved conflict?

A

When sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty.
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.

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23
Q

What is the Oedipus complex?

A

In phallic stage little boys develop incestuous feelings towards mother & murderous hatred for father. They fear the father will castrate them so they repress the feelings for mother & identify with father.

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24
Q

What is the electra complex?

A

I’m phallic stage girl’s experience penis envy- desire father & hate mother. Freud is less clear, give up the desire of father and replace it with one for a baby.

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25
Q

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach? (Explain)

A
  1. It has had a huge influence on psychology - used to explain wide range of phenomena, personality, moral development & gender.
  2. The psychodynamic approach has practical application - Freud developed psychoanalysis which involves range of techniques designed to access unconscious.
  3. The psychodynamic approach cannot be falsified - id & Oedipus complex occur at unconscious level, difficult to test.
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26
Q

What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  1. The research methods used in psychodynamic approach have been criticised - Freud’s theory based on case studies (Little Hans) who were often in therapy.
  2. The psychodynamic approach is deterministic - suggests all human behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts we can’t control.
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27
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

It is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.

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28
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

It is learning by consequences.

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29
Q

What are the three aspects of operant conditioning? (3)

A

1)Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward.
2) Negative reinforcement: occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant from happening.
3) Punishment: this is an unpleasant consequence.

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30
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

The consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

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31
Q

What is the behaviourist approach?

A

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.

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32
Q

What are the 4 assumptions of behaviourism?

A

1) all behaviour is learned from experience.
2) the psychologists are only interested in what can be observed/measured.
3) they use lab experiments to gain control & objectivity in research.
4) basic behaviours are the same in all species (use animal testing).

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33
Q

What does UCS -> UCR mean?
What does NS + UCS -> CS mean?
What does CS -> CR mean?
With reference to Pavlov’s dog research.

A

1) the unconditioned stimulus creates an unconditioned response (food -> salivation).
2) a neutral stimulus (bell is then introduced and paired with the UCS (food) to create a conditioned stimulus.
3) the conditioned stimulus is tested (bell is rung & food brought out) and after a few repeated tries, a conditioned response (salivation) is created.

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34
Q

What is Skinner’s box?
What elements did Skinner introduce? (2)

A

1) When a rat is out in a box and the behaviour is recorded in a compressed time frame.
2) A food pellet was given out when the rat pressed the lever.
The floor was electrocuted until the rat pressed the lever to stop the unpleasant feeling.

35
Q

What is social learning theory?

A

It explains behaviour including direct & indirect reinforcement.
There must be a role model to provide examples & provoke imitation.

36
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A

Reinforcement that is not experienced directly by a person but occurs through someone else being rewarded or punished - pick up in rewards & punishments.

37
Q

What are the 4 steps to the internal meditational process?

A

1) pay attention to behaviour- notice it.
2) must retain the behaviour- remember.
3) must be able to reproduce behaviour by observer.
4) must be motivated to perform behaviour (vicarious reinforcement).

38
Q

What is motor reproduction?

A

The ability for the observer to perform a behaviour (if they can physically do it).

39
Q

What must the relationship between the role model and observer be like?

A

The observer should identify with the role model and feel similar to them- the role model does not need to be physically present (e.g. me with Taylor Swift).

40
Q

What was the aim of Bandura’s research into the social learning theory?

A

He wanted to study aggression on children - 3-5 years.

41
Q

What did Bandura do in his study? (Social learning theory) (5)

A
  • He paired a child off with an adult ( matched pairs, gender) and put them in a room with a Bobo doll, aggressive toys and regular toys.
  • Then he got the adults to act violently towards the doll, using the aggressive toys as well for 10 mins.
  • The adult then left and the child was in the room alone.
  • A control group was used where the child was in the room alone without any adult at any stage.
  • 2nd experiment - children watched adult’s violence on a film.
42
Q

What were Bandura’s results on social learning theory? (2)

A
  • the child copied the adults violent behaviour (control group was gentle towards it).
  • the children copied what they saw on the film.
43
Q

What were Bandura’s conclusions on social learning theory? (4)

A
  • people can be influenced by other people’s behaviours when observed.
  • impact of tv violence.
  • both boys and girls were more influenced by the male adults than the female ones -
    verbal aggression was more influenced by female models.
44
Q

What are the strengths of the behaviourist approach? (3)

A

1) behaviourism has scientific credibility, controlled research.
2) has real-life application, rewarding appropriate behaviour can change it (operant).
3) can explain how certain psychological problems develop, phobias learned through classical conditioning & maintained through operant conditioning.

45
Q

What are the weaknesses of the behaviourist approach? (2)

A

1) highly deterministic, actions are determined by past experiences that have been conditioned, ignores influence of free will, people not responsible for own behaviour, problematic.
2) ethical issues, Skinner’s box, unnecessary rat abuse as not necessarily applicable to human behaviour.

46
Q

What is the cognitive approach about?

A

Mental processes, e.g. thoughts, perceptions and attention.

47
Q

What are the 4 assumptions of the cognitive approach?

A

1) The mind actively processes information.
2) Internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.
3) Meditational processes occur between stimulus and response.
4) Humans are information processors and resemble computers.

48
Q

What are internal mental processes?

A

Private operations of the
mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.

49
Q

What are inferences?

A

Processes where cognitive psychologists
draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis os observed behaviour.

50
Q

What is the schema?

A

It is a cognitive framework that helps to organise & interpret in information. Allow us to take shortcuts while interpreting large amounts of information.

51
Q

What is the theoretical model? (Cognitive approach)

A

When information flows through a sequence of stages, e.g. multi-store model of memory.

52
Q

What is the computer model? (Cognitive approach)
What are the two types of coding?

A

1) Different programmes that can be ran on a computer to imitate the human mind. Coding to store information.
2) Semantic coding
= meaning behind it.
Acoustic coding = sound.

53
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience? (1970s)

A

Fuse cognitive approach & biology. Influence of brain structures (neuro) on mental processes (cognition).
Can study living brain -> new technology.
Types of memory- episodic and semantic.

54
Q

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach? (3)

A

1) Highly controlled lab experiments, increase validity- scientific credibility.
2) Helps treatment of depression etc, CBT, improve many lives.
3) Soft determinism, can only operate within what we know, free to think before responding. More reasonable than other approaches.

55
Q

What are the limitations of the cognitive approach? (2)

A

1) Criticised for machine reductionism- computer ignores influence of human emotions & motivation, less complicated than in real life.
2) No real life application as artificial stimuli, don’t represent real memory experience.

56
Q

What are the strengths of the cognitive neuroscience? (2)

A

1) Demonstrates role of experience in shaping the brain- brain scans demonstrated brain plasticity (process where brain changes & adapts as result of new experiences. Cognitive neuroscience it is less deterministic than other approaches.
2) Provides neurobiological basis of certain psychological disorders, role of the parahippocampal gyrus in OCD (part of the brain associated with processing unpleasant emotions, abnormally shaped in OCD). Resulted in development of new therapeutics and removing blame and stigma for individuals suffering with OCD.

57
Q

What is the limitation of the cognitive neuroscience?
What is a biological structure?

A

1) Focus has expanded recently to include the use of computer-generate models to “read” the brain. Thought that in future, could be used to analyse brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether or not they are lying. Ethical concerns surrounding use such mind mapping techniques, lie detection in courts of law.

2) A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural
functioning.

58
Q

What is the biological approach?

A

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural
functioning.

59
Q

What is neurochemistry?

A

This relates to the chemicals in the brain which regulates psychological functioning.

60
Q

What are genes?
What are twin studies?
What are concordance rates?

A

1) make up chromosomes and contain DNA, codes features of an organism.
2) Determine likelihood that certain traits have certain basis by using concordance rates between twins to see if they have same characteristics.
3) Statistical measures that describe the proportion of pairs of individuals that share an attribute given that 1 already has that trait.

61
Q

What % of DNA do MZ twins share?
What % of DNA do DZ twins share?
What % of DNA do siblings share?
If MZ twins have a higher concordance rate than DZ twins, what does it suggest?

A

1) 100%.
2) 50%.
3) 50%.
4) It suggests they have the same genetic basis.

62
Q

What is evolution?
What is natural selection?
E.g of trait that is advantageous for humans?
What happens as a result of natural selection to genes that don’t provide an advantage?

A

1) Changes in inherited characteristics in biological population over successive generations.
2) Main principle of this is any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will continue in future generations.
3) Adrenaline- fight or flight response, more likely to survive.
4) If does survive but doesn’t reproduce, the traits don’t remain in the gene pool.

63
Q

What is a genotype?
What is a phenotype?
E.g of same genes expressed different ways in MZ twins?
What do genotypes and phenotypes show about human behaviour?

A

1) Particular set of genes a person possesses.
2) Characteristics of an individual that’s determined by both genes and environment.
3) Schizophrenia - predisposed because of change in gene.
4) Depends on an interaction inherited and the environment, nature vs nurture.

64
Q

What does the biological approach believe about psychological behaviour?
What biological structures does the biological approach believe we should focus on?

A

1) It suggests everything psychological is first biological.
2) An understanding of the brain’s structure and function of thoughts and behaviours.

65
Q

What does the biological approach think explains our thoughts, behaviours and feelings?
How does the biological and cognitive approach contrast each other?

A

1) That they all have a physical basis.
2) Biological- believes mind lives in brian.
Cognitive- 2 separate things, mental processes are separate from brain.

66
Q

What are the strengths of the biological approach? (2)

A

1) Scientific credibility - scientific methods, lab experiments, twin studies.
2) It has led to drugs that treat mental illness.

67
Q

What are the limitations of the biological approach? (2)

A

1) Deterministic- caused by genes and neuro-transmitters, can’t control behaviour, complicates legal system.
2) Reductionist- behaviour bc of genes, hormones & neuro-transmitters. Don’t consider other factors to conditions like OCD.

68
Q

When was the humanistic approach founded and who was it founded by?

A

1950s, Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow.

69
Q

What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach? (5)

A

1) Emphasis the importance of subjective experience.
2) We are active agents who have ability to determine own development.
3) very different to other approaches.
4) rejects scientific methods.
5) it is a person-centered approach.

70
Q

What is self-actualisation?

A

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential (become what you’re capable of).

71
Q

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Start at top of pyramid. (5)

A

1) Self-actualisation: realising full potential.
2) Self-esteem needs: self-respect, status, perception of ability.
3) Belonging needs: need for friends, love, intimate relationships.
4) Safety needs: security, stability, protection, freedom of fear.
5) Physiological needs: food, water, oxygen & sleep.

72
Q

What are deficiency needs and why are they necessary?

A

They are the first 4 layers of Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid. They must be met to reach self-actualisation.

73
Q

According to Rogers what is:
1) The Self.
2) Conditions of worth.

A

1) The ideas & values that characterise ‘I’ & ‘Me’ & includes perception & valuing of ‘what I am’ &’what I can do’.
2) When a parent places limits/boundaries on their love of their children.

74
Q

What is congruence and incongruence?
How does it relate to self-actualisation?

A

1) Congruence is when the self-concept & ideal self broadly match. Incongruence- they don’t match.
2) If they don’t match, in a state of incongruence & don’t feel self-worth. Need to match & be congruent to reach self-actualisation. Use Rogerian therapy.

75
Q

What is Roger’s client cantered therapy? (4)

A

1) When individuals are experts of own conditions.
2) Client is encouraged towards discovery of their own solutions.
3) Therapist should provide: genuineness, empathy & unconditional positive regard.
4) Increase feelings of self-worth, reduce level of incongruence.

76
Q

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach? (2)

A

1) Positive approach- psychologists been praised for ‘bringing the person back into psychology’ & promoting positive image of human condition. Freud saw human beings as slaves to past & claimed we existed between ‘common unhappiness’ and absolute despair’. Humanistic offers refreshing & optimistic alternative, people as basically good, free, achievement of potential & in control lives.
2) Holistic- reject attempt to break up behaviour to small concepts, need to experience person as a whole (advocate holism). Real-life context, increases validity.

77
Q

What are the limitations of the humanistic approach? (2)

A

1) Cultural bias- ideas (freedom, autonomy and personal growth) more associated with individualist cultures. Collectivist cultures (India, needs of group) not identify with ideal and values. Possible approach is product of the cultural context, not generalisable cultures.
2) Little real-world application. Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques & Maslow’s hierarchy of needs used to explain motivation, remains the case the approach has limited impact within discipline of psychology as whole. Due to lack of sound evidence & the approach has been described as loose set of abstract concepts.

78
Q

Psychodynamic approach comparison points: (5)

A

1) nature & nurture- biological drives cause behaviour, relationship w parents.
2) can be reductionism & holism- reduces to sexual drives, id, ego & superego= holism.
3) psychic determinism- unconscious forces drive behaviour, rationalised by conscious.
4) scientific method? - No, case studies.
5) treatment- psychoanalysis is successful but needs lots of patient input.

79
Q

Behaviourism approach comparison points: (5)

A

1) nurture- behaviour comes from learning, through association & reinforcement.
2) reductionist- complex behaviours -> stimulus (testing in a lab).
3) deterministic- environmentally determined -external.
4) scientific method? Yes, Pavlov & Skinner.
5) treatment- therapies (abnormalities from faulty learning). Treat phobias.

80
Q

SLT approach comparison points: (5)

A

1) nurture- learnt from observation & imitation.
2) reductionist- key processes (mediational processes).
3) reciprocal determinism- environment & behaviours we chose to perform.
4) Scientific method? Yes, Bandura.
5) treatment- little application, dysfunctional role models explain negative behaviours.

81
Q

Cognitive approach comparison points: (5)

A

1) nature & nurture- info processing abilities & schema are innate, refined through experience.
2) machine reductionism - people as info processing machines- ignore emotions.
3) soft determinism- chose own thoughts & behaviour, these operate within limits of what we experienced.
4) scientific method- yes.
5) treatment- CBT effective application. Eradicate faulty thinking, root of maladaptive behaviour.

82
Q

Biological approach comparison points: (5)

A

1) nature & nurture- result of genotype (nature) & phenotype (nurture).
2) reductionist- explain behavioural & psychological states of level of gene/neuron.
3) genetic determinism- directed by innate influences.
4) scientific method- Yes, brain scans.
5) treatment- revolutionised. Drug therapy- regulates chemical imbalances.

83
Q

Humanism approach comparison points: (5)

A

1) nurture- those around have critical impact on self concept.
2) holistic- investigate aspects of individual, include wider society.
3) free will- operate as active agents who determine development.
4) scientific method? No, case studies.
5) treatment- Roger’s therapy, close gap between self-concept & self-esteem. Stimulate personal growth.

Psychology (7 decks)

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