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Research Methods - Paper 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a hypothesis?
What are the 3 types?

A

Hypothesis- the prediction of the IV & DV or the prediction of the relationship between the variables.
1) directional. 2) non-directional. 3) null.

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2
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?
Another name for it?

A

Predicting the direction of results (higher, lower, etc).
One-tailed.

need to state where one condition is higher than the other (or lower)

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3
Q

What is a directional relationship hypothesis?

A

Also directional but is a relationship not a difference (positive, negative).

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4
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?
Another name for it?

A

No direction is predicted but a difference is stated.
Two-tailed.

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5
Q

What is a non-directional relationship hypothesis?

A

Not directional, there will be a relationship.

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6
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

Where no effect or relationship will be found.

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7
Q

How to remember a ‘correlation’ example?
How to remember an ‘experiment’ example?

A

If ‘relationship’ is stated.
If ‘difference’ is stated.

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8
Q

How do you use operationalised variables to create hypotheses?

A

Be very specific with examples: e.g. 200mg of caffeine will get HIGHER RESULTS on a maths test.

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9
Q

What is an extraneous variable? Examples? (4)

A

Any variable other that the IV that MAY have an effect on the DV if it’s not controlled.
E.g. mood, age, gender, anxiety.

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10
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Extraneous variables that varies systematically with IV, so cannot be sure of the true source of change to the DV.

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11
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Cues from the researcher or research situation that could reveal the purpose of the investigation which leads to changes in behaviour.

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12
Q

What is investigator effects?

A

Any effects of the investigator’s behaviour on the DV (conscious or unconscious).

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13
Q

What is randomisation?

A

The use of chance to control for the effects of bias (random selection).

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14
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Where each participant gets the exact same procedure and instructions during the experiment.

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15
Q

What’s the difference between single and double blinded trials?

A

Single- only participant doesn’t know which condition they’re taking part in.
Double- both participants and researchers don’t know.

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16
Q

What are the 3 experimental designs?

A

1) independent
2) repeated
3) matched pairs

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17
Q

What is independent group design?

A

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.

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18
Q

What is repeated measures design?

A

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.

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19
Q

What is matched pairs design?

A

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B.

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20
Q

What is random allocation?

A

An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensure that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.

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21
Q

What are order effects?

A

A confounding variable that occurs in repeated measures designs, arising from the order in which conditions are presented e.g. practice effect or boredom effect.

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22
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

An attempt to control for the effects of order effects in a repeated measures design: half of the participants experience the conditions in one order (A then B) and the other half in the opposite order (B then A).

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23
Q

What is a laboratory experiment? (3)

A

1) it takes place in a controlled environment.
2) researcher manipulates IV & records effect on DV.
3) maintain strict control of extraneous variables.

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24
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

Takes place in natural setting surging which the researcher manipulates the IV & records the effect on the DV.

difference between this & natural is researcher does change IV

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25
Q

What is a natural experiment? (2)

A

1) where the change in IV isn’t brought by researcher, but would’ve happened anyway.
2) researcher records effect on DV.

difference between this & field is researcher doesn’t change IV

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26
Q

What is a Quasi experiment? (2)

A

1) study that is almost an experiment but the IV hasn’t been determined by anyone.
2) the ‘variables’ simply exist.

e.g. age.

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27
Q

For the 4 different experiments, say if the IV is controlled by the researcher or not.

A

Lab - Yes.
Field - Yes.
Natural - No.
Quasi - No.

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28
Q

For the 4 different experiments, say if the environment of the study is controlled or not.

A

Lab - Yes.
Field - No.
Natural - No.
Quasi - Yes.

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29
Q

What is high and low ecological validity? (2)

A

High- indicates findings of research can be generalised & applied to real-life situations.
Low- indicates findings cannot be generalised to real-life.

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30
Q

What are the 5 sampling methods?

A

1) random.
2) systematic.
3) stratified.
4) opportunity.
5) volunteer.

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31
Q

What is random sampling?
What are the strengths (1) and weaknesses (3) of this?

A

1) each member of population has an equal chance of being selected (no. generator).
+) hasn’t been influenced by researcher (no bias).
-) some groups are under/over represented.
Time consuming. Some may refuse to take part.

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32
Q

What is systematic sampling?
What are the strengths (2) and weaknesses (3) of this?

A

1) when every nth member of target population is selected from a sampling frame.
+) free from researcher bias.
Unusually fairly representative.
-) time consuming. Difficult to get a list of everyone. Participants may refuse to take part.

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33
Q

What is stratified sampling?
What are the strengths (2) and weaknesses (3) of this?

A

1) the composition of sample reflects proportions of people in certain sub-groups (age, gender, etc).
+) most representative of all sampling methods.
Free from bias.
-) not easy to pick a sample. Need to know a lot about population. Takes a long time to chose sample.

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34
Q

What is opportunity sampling?
What are the strengths (2) and weaknesses (2) of this?

A

1) selecting anyone who is willing to take part - whoever is around at time.
+) saves money & saves time.
-) unrepresentative sample. Researcher bias.

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35
Q

What is volunteer sampling?
What are the strengths (2) and weaknesses (2) of this?

A

1) an advert is produced & individuals self-select to take part.
+) easy, less time consuming.
-) volunteer bias occurs. Unrepresentative.

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36
Q

What is the BPS?
What do they do?

A

The British psychological society.
Decide what behaviour is/isn’t acceptable when dealing with participants.

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37
Q

How is informed consent related to ethics?

A

The participants have the right to have detailed info concerning the nature & purpose of the research- can make an informed decision.

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38
Q

How is the right to withdraw related to ethics?

A

The participants have the right to leave the study at ANY POINT even without reason - can also be after the research has concluded if they don’t want their results used.

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39
Q

How is confidentiality related to ethics?

A

The participant has the right to have personal info protected - anonymity.

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40
Q

How is protection from harm related to ethics?

A

The participants shouldn’t experience negative physical or psychological harm.

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41
Q

How is deception related to ethics?

A

The participants shouldn’t be mislead by the experimenter or have info withheld from them.

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42
Q

What is cost-benefit analysis?

A

When the ethics committee weigh up the costs of participants & benefits of the outcome of the research - decide whether it should go ahead or not.

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43
Q

What are the 3 alternative ways of getting consent?

A

1) presumptive consent- go to similar group, not participant to ask if study is acceptable.
2) priorgeneral consent- participants give permission for multiple studies including ones that involve deception.
36 retrospective consent- asked for consent after taking part in study - may not have been aware or could be subject to deception.

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44
Q

What are observations?

A

Non-experimental methods that cannot establish a cause and effect relationship - more natural (no IV).

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45
Q

What is a naturalistic observation? Positives (2) & negatives (2) ?

A

Where the researcher watches and records behaviour in a setting within which it would normally occur.
+ high external validity, can be generalised to everyday life.
+ wouldn’t guess they’re part of a study, demand characteristics.
- low external validity, other extraneous variables involved.
- low reliability, lack of control, hard to replicate.

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46
Q

What is a controlled observation? Positives (2) & negatives (2) ?

A

When the researcher watches and records behaviour within a structured environment- variables are managed.
+ high internal validity, less extraneous variables, more controlled.
+ high reliability, easy to replicate & control.
- low external validity, hard to generalise to real life.
- could guess study aim as could give clues, demand characteristics.

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47
Q

What is a covert observation? Positives (2) & negative (1) ?

A

When the participants are watched and recorded without knowledge and consent.
+ natural reactions, not forced.
+ high validity as don’t know being watched, no participant reactivity problem.
- may not want to be watched or take part, can’t consent.

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48
Q

What is a overt observation? Positive (1) & negatives (2) ?

A

When the participant is watched and recorded with knowledge and consent.
+ have been given informed consent to be watched.
- are aware of study & could fake reactions.
- low validity as know being watched, participant reactivity problem.

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49
Q

What is a participant observation? Positive (1) & negative (1) ?

A

When the researcher becomes a member of the group that’s being observed.
+ could get insight into participants experience & increase validity.
- may identify too strongly & lose objectivity, hard to focus on study.

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50
Q

What is a non-participant observation? Positive (1) & negative (1) ?

A

When the researcher remains outside the group that is being observed.
+ the researcher can remain objective as won’t identify with participants.
- researcher will lose valuable insight into the study.

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51
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

If the researcher is writing down everything that they see it is an unstructured observation.

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52
Q

When is an unstructured observation appropriate?

A

This is appropriate when the observation is in a small scale & involves few participants.

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53
Q

What kind of data does unstructured observations produce?
Negative? (2)
Positive?

A

1) Qualitative data.
2) A negative of
this is it is difficult to analyse. Also prone to bias because researchers may only record what catches their eye & may not be most important/useful.
3) A positive is data is richer and more in depth.

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54
Q

Why is a structured observation used?
What kind of data does it produce?
Positive?

A

1) A structured observation might be used because there is too much going on for the researcher to record everything.
2) Quantitative data.
3) A positive of this is it is easier to record and analyse. Allow the researcher to quantify their observations.

55
Q

What is observer bias?
Negative?
Which is more likely to affect observer bias?

A

1) Observer bias is when observers’ expectations impact what they see or hear.
2) This reduces the validity of the observations.
3) Unstructured design is more likely to be
affected by observer bias because they can’t record everything and might miss some things.

56
Q

What is teeter behaviour?
How do the researcher quantify their research?
Positive about behavioural categories?

A

1) Target behaviour is the behaviour that is the main focus of the observation (must be clearly defined before).
2) Researchers quantify their observations using a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods. Target behaviours put into behaviaral categories.
3) Behavioural categories makes the data collection more structured & objective.

57
Q

What is important about behavioural categories?
What is a ‘dustbin category’ ?

A

1) It is important that behavioural categories are cleat and unambiguous so
that they don’t require further interpretation by other researchers (difficult for each person).
2) A “dustbin category” is where different behaviours are “deposited”, don’t have their own behavioural category.

58
Q

What is a problem with the ‘dustbin category’ ?
What should behavioural categories not be like?

A

1) There should not be one of these in a behavioural checklist because it means the researcher isn’t observing what they need to & categories aren’t appropriate.
2) Behavioural categories should not overlap because then you don’t know which category a behaviour belongs to- two observers might interpret it differently, unreliable.

59
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Event sampling is when a target behaviour or event is established, and the researcher records this event every time it occurs. It is appropriate to use event sampling when the target behaviour happens infrequently not if it’s too complex as the observer may overlook important details.

60
Q

What does event sampling use to record the data?

A

Event sampling would tend to use a tally chorto record the data.

61
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Time sampling is when a target individual or group is observed, and the researchers records their behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g. every minute for 10 minutes to get 10 observations- appropriate to use when there are lots of people to observe.

62
Q

What is an issuer with time sampling?

A

Important behaviours may be missed if they don’t occur at the set time interval.

63
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?
Positive of this?
What should the observers do before the observation?

A

1) The extents to which there is an agreement between 2 or more observers involved.
2) Inter-observer reliability should make data more objective unbiased.
3) Observers should have if taking part in the same training before, ensure they’re interpreting behavioural categories in the
same way.

64
Q

What are the 4 stages involved in inter-observer reliability?

A

1) Observers familiarise with the behavioural categories used.
2) Pilot study- allow observers chance to practice & make any changes.
3) After observation (done independently) 2 or more observers should correlate to check reliability.
4) A positive correlation of above +.80 would mean it’s reliable.

65
Q

What is a self-reporting technique?

A

When a person is asked to explain own feelings, opinions, behaviours anal /or expeniences related to a given topic.

66
Q

Questionnaires:
What is an open question? Type of data?
What is a closed question? Type of data?

A

1) no fixed choice, can answer in any way
they wish - qualitative data.
2) there is a fixed choice of response determined by the question setter - quantitative data.

67
Q

Positive & negative about qualitative data?
Positive & negative about quantitive data?

A

1) + specific. - not easy to analyse.
2) + easy to analyse. - not specific.

68
Q

What is the positive and negative of closed questions?
What is the positive and negatives (2) of open questions?

A

1) + responses are easy to compare. - can’t explain answers.
2) + greater detail. - difficult to collate/summarise, conclusions drawn may be open to bias.

69
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

A demand characteristic, when people lie to make them look better.

70
Q

What are the three types of rating scales (closed questions).

A

1) Likert (agree, disagree).
2) Rating scale - 1-5.
3) Fixed choice - options of possible responses.

71
Q

What are the problems with questionnaires? (5)

A

1) Jargon- to confusing with technical terms.
2) Emotive - suggests how author feels towards topic of question.
3)Leading question- guiding respondent towards a particular answer.
4) Double-barrelled- two questions in one.
5) Double negatives- hard to understand.

72
Q

What are the positives (3) and negatives (2) of using a questionnaire?

A

Positives- cost-effective, lots of data quickly.
Completed without researcher being present, reduces effort.
Straightforward to analyse, statistical (graphs) mainly closed Q’s.
Negatives- not always truthful, social desirability bias (demand characteristic).
Response bias, reply in similar way for each Q. (Acquiescence bias- agree no matter what).

73
Q

What is a structured interview?
An unstructured interview?
Semi-structured?

A

1) An interview where the questions are decided- they are pre-determined.
2) An interview that starts with general aims and some questions and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions- free-flowing, is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers.
3) A mix of the 2 above.

74
Q

What does standardised mean? (Interviews)

A

Same formalised procedure, same instructions for all participants (rigid).

75
Q

Strengths of a structured interview? (3)

A

1) Easy to replicate, same questions.
2) Standardised format means no interviewer bias.
3) Easy to analyse, straight forward answers.

76
Q

Strengths of an unstructured interview? (2)

A

1) Can follow points they arise & gain insight- validity.
2) More truthful with answers as harder to lie face-to-face with follow-up questions.

77
Q

Limitations of structured interviews? (2)

A

1) Aren’t able to deviate from topic & ask other questions, no insight.
2) Could lie, don’t have a rapport (relationship).

78
Q

Limitations of unstructured interviews? (4)

A

1) Less easy to replicate- subjective Q’s & A’s.
2) Lots of differences between interviews, can ignore things that don’t back up their point.
3) Not easy to analyse as lots of info- some irrelevant.
4) Lots of extra info.

79
Q

What is validity?
What is internal validity? What are demand characteristics.
Demand characteristics impact on validity?

A

1) Concerns of the accuracy of something.
2) Whether findings are due to manipulation of IV or confounding variables.
3) When person picks up cues from researcher/ environment which give expectations & causes to change behaviour.
4) Change behaviour which is confounding variable so don’t know if change is because of change in IV or not.

80
Q

What are confounding variables?
Confounding variables impact on validity?

A

1) A variable that systematically variates with change in IV, so will have impact of DV.
2) Lack validity- findings aren’t due to IV and are because of confounding variables.

81
Q

What is external validity?
What is ecological validity (EV)?
Why lab experiment considered to have low EV?

A

1) The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the setting in which they were found.
2) Extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings & situations, a form of external validity.
3) Not a natural setting- people will naturally change behaviour in lab.

82
Q

What is mundane realism & study linked to it?
What is temporal validity & study linked to it?

A

1) Whether the task involved in a study is “like everyday life.” Asch, don’t compare lines.
2) Refers to the validity of the findings in relation to the progression of time. Zimbardo- different time periods, in 50’s/60’s.

83
Q

What is face validity & how do you use it to check something?
What is concurrent validity & how do you use it to check something?

A

1) Checks whether experiment test what it’s supposed to. Is relevant to aims? Have experts see if questions are 👍.
2) Check whether test relates to existing measure that we know to be valid. Strong correlation exceeds value of +.8 (good validity).

84
Q

How could validity be improved in experiments?
How could validity be improved in questionnaires?

A

1) Internal validity- control to reduce confounding variables. Population validity- find range of participants from different backgrounds.
2) Incorporate a lie scale to assess consistency of participants response & to control effects of social desirability bias.

85
Q

How could validity be improved in observations?
How could validity be improved in qualitative research?

A

1) High ecological validity, minimal intervention by researcher, observer remains undetected, covert, behaviour is authentic.
2) High ecological validity- depth & detail is better able to reflect a participant’s reality.

86
Q

What is reliability?

A

How consistently a method measures something (reproduce & get same results).

87
Q

What are the two methods to check for internal reliability?

A

1) Split half method- compare half the Q’s with other half to check similar level of difficulty.
2) Inter-observer reliability- compare observations of the observers to check interpreting behaviour in the same way.

88
Q

What are the two methods to check for external reliability?

A

1) Test re-test method- if same questionnaire/interview conducted more than once, same results should be obtained.
2) Replication- experiment should get same results when repeated if same standardised procedures (same instructions, method & debrief) are used.

89
Q

What is the test re-test method for reliability in detail? (3 points)

A

1) Participants do same test a 2nd time- don’t remember the answers, same researcher.
2) Correlate 2 tests- compare the scores.
3) Check correlation score- generally accept +0.8 correlation as a reasonable degree of reliability.

90
Q

What is the inter-observer method for reliability in detail? (3 points)

A

1) 2 observers- use same behavioural categories, agreed before observation.
2) Do observation- do independently and get tally of period of time.
3) Check for agreement- check tally, correlation calculated, +0.8 is acceptable.

91
Q

If a questionnaire has low reliability how can it be improved?
If an observation has low reliability how can it be improved?

A

1) Some items need to be ‘deselected’ or re-written. Open Q’s -> closed, fixed Q’s.
2) Operationalise behavioural categories, shouldn’t overlap & needs to cover all behaviours -> need further training gf if can’t apply consistently.

92
Q

What is the best method for checking reliability in:
1) Questionnaires.
2) Interviews.

A

1) Test re-test method, compare 2 sets of data.
2) Use same interviewer each time, structured interview, controlled.

93
Q

What is a case study?

A

Am in-depth investigation, description and analysis (unusual individuals or events) of a single individual, group, institution or event.
Help study things too unethical to do experiment on.

94
Q

What data is used for case studies?

A

Mostly qualitative- use many research methods to collect info.
Can be quantitative- if complete experimental or psychological testing to assess capability.

95
Q

What does longitudinal mean in relation to case studies?

A

They take place over a long period of time (could end up withdrawing, lose interest)- in depth & more data. Often involves gathering additional data from family & friends.

96
Q

What are the strengths of case studies? (2)

A

1) May generate hypotheses for future studies. KF showed different types of STM, led to development of WMM which couldn’t be explained by multi-store MM.
2) Offer rich & detailed insight into unusual forms of behaviour. Understand more about human behaviour that couldn’t be investigated using experiments.

97
Q

What are the limitations of case studies?

A

1) Can’t be replicated. Clive Wearing experience amnesia & couldn’t form new memories after contracted encephalitis. Can’t induce illnesses in others- reduces reliability.
2) Researchers become very involved, reduce validity, get to know family & participant. Can be subjective data.

98
Q

What is content analysis?

A

Behaviour is indirectly studied by examining the communications that people produce - summarise & describing data in a systematic data.

99
Q

What is thematic analysis?
What is coding?

A

1) Identifying implicit/explicit ideas in data, organised according to these themes.
2) A stage if content analysis- identifying each instance of the chosen categories.

both use behavioural caregories

100
Q

Describe Thematic analysis. (4 points)

A

1) Data is transcribed.
2) Data is then reviewed repeatedly so the researcher can identify trends.
3) Themes identified are re-analysed so they become more refined.
4) Themes identified can be used to support/challenge existing theories.

101
Q

Strengths of content & thematic analysis. (2)

A

1) Useful, get around ethical issues associated w psychological research. Material analysed might be TV adverts, already exist in public domain. No issues with obtaining consent.
2) Produces data high in ecological validity. Analysing TV adverts, stereotypical gender roles in 2019. Media being studied based on what people do or how things happen in the “real world”.

102
Q

Limitations of content & thematic analysis. (2)

A

1) Tells us what rather than why. Tells us how many adverts show stereotypical gender roles. Means there is no meaning behind data, don’t know why traditional gender roles are still shown on TV.
2) Risk of observer bias. Researchers analyse data & decide which category data fits into/themes arise out of the data. Interpretation leads to subjectivity- affects findings validity.

103
Q

What are the strengths of qualitative data? (3)
What are the limitations of data? (3)

A

1) more detail, much broader, greater external validity (let’s fully report opinions).
2) difficult to analyse, hard to make comparisons, subjective conclusions.

104
Q

What are the strengths of quantitative data? (3)
What are the limitations of quantitative data? (2)

A

1) simple to analyse, easily to make comparisons, more objective.
2) much narrower, less detailed & hard to represent ‘real life’.

105
Q

What are the strengths of primary data? (2)
What are the limitations of primary data? (2)

A

1) fits exact purpose, get specific info.
2) time consuming to get data, planning & preparation requires recourses.

106
Q

What are the strengths of secondary data? (2)
What are the limitations of secondary data? (3)

A

1) inexpensive & quick, find research so don’t need to do experiment.
2) variation in quality & accuracy, incomplete/outdated, validity (not match needs).

107
Q

What is meta-analysis? (Including qualitative & quantitative data).

A

Use 2nd data from many studies, researchers discuss conclusions/findings (qualitative). Use quantitative to analyse combined data.

108
Q

What is an effect size that researcher calculate when doing meta-analysis?

A

Overall statistical measure of difference or relationship between variables across many studies.

109
Q

What are the strengths of meta-analysis? (2)
What is the limitation of meta-analysis? (1)

A

1) view data with more confidence (get resources from well-known reliable sources), generalisable to large populations (sample size increased).
2) publication bias- may not select all relevant studies (leave out negative or non-significant studies) -> incorrect conclusions.

110
Q

Mean:
1) definition.
2) advantages.
3) disadvantages.

A

1) The arithmetic average calculated + (how it’s calculated).
2) More representative of data as a whole as includes all values.
3) Easily distorted by extreme values.

111
Q

Median:
1) definition.
2) advantages.
3) disadvantages.

A

1) The central value in data, values arranged from lowest - highest.
2) Extreme values don’t effect it. Easy to calculate.
3) Less sensitive than mean as lower & higher values are ignored.

112
Q

Mode:
1) definition.
2) advantages.
3) disadvantages.

A

1) The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.
2) Easy to calculate & can be used to identify a ‘typical’ or average value.
3) Can be more than 1 mode (bimodal), not representative.

113
Q

Range:
1) definition.
2) advantages.
3) disadvantages.

A

1) A calculation of the dispersion in set of data: lowest-highest.
2) Easy to calculate.
3) Only takes into account 2 most extreme values.

114
Q

1) definition.
2) advantages.
3) disadvantages.

A

1) A calculation, tells us how much scores deviate from the mean- calculate the difference between mean & score. Smaller standard = higher dispersion (people impacted similarly by IV in experiment).
2) More precise measure of dispersion.
3) Easily distorted by extreme values.

115
Q

What is correlation?
What are co-variables?
What is a positive correlation?
What is a negative correlation?
What is a 0 correlation?

A

1) A mathematical technique- researcher investigates association/relationship between 2 co-variables.
2) Variables investigated in correlation, e.g. height & weight. They aren’t referred to as IV & DV cuz a correlation investigates association/relationship between variables, rather than trying to show a cause & effect relationship.
3) As 1 co-variable increases other does.
4) As 1 co-variable increases other decreases.
5) When no association/relationship between co-variables. Like association between no. people in room in Manchester & total daily rainfall in Peru.

116
Q

What does the correlation co-efficient show?
What number is a correlation always between?
What does the number show/mean?

A

1) How closely variables are & what type of correlation it is.
2) -1 & 1.
3) 0: zero correlation.
Close to 1 or -1: Strong relationship.

117
Q

What are the strengths of correlations? (2)

A

1) Useful as preliminary research technique, allow researchers to
identify link can be further investigated. E.g. assessing strength & direction of relationships provide a precise & quantifiable measure of how 2 variables relate. Suggest ideas for future research. Often used as starting point to assess patterns between variables before researchers commit to experimental study.
2) Correlations relatively quick & cost-effective carry out. No need for controlled environment & no manipulation of
variables required. 2nd data used, means
correlations less time consuming & less expensive.

118
Q

What are the limitations of correlations? (2)

A

1) Correlations suffer from 3rd variable problem, another
untested variable causing relationship between co-variables. E.g. might be strong + relationship between
caffeine & anxiety levels, could be impacted by other variable. Unaccounted-for variable could cause relationships between
2 co-variables but unaware of what it is.
2) Lack of experimental manipulation & control within correlation, so studies only tell that variables are related. E.g. temp ^, so does no. ice-creams sold. Can’t tell why are related. Means correlations can’t establish cause & effect.

119
Q

What do experiments have that correlations don’t?

A

Experiments: look for difference in an IV affecting a DV.
Correlation: relationship between 2 co-variables.

120
Q

What are pilot studies?

A

A small scale investigation that takes place before a real investigation is conducted - aims to check procedures, materials and measuring scales.

ITS ABOUT CHECKING THE METHOD, NOT FINDINGS!!

121
Q

What are the advantages (2) and disadvantages (2) of pilot studies?

A

Advantages:

1) save time and money.
2) increases validity of final investigation as can practice & change method.

Disadvantages:

1) could lead to investigation bias - change study to get results they want.
2) need new participants for final study - more required.

122
Q

What are single- blind studies?
What is the benefit of this?

A

1) Method in which researchers don’t tell participants if they’re given the test treatment or the control.
2) no participant bias or demand characteristics, also help avoid confounding variables of demand characteristics.

123
Q

What are double-blind studies?
What is the benefit of this?

A

1) both participants and person conducting experiment aren’t aware of aims of the study or conditions.
2) prevents investigator bias - give no clues as to which conditions the participants are put in.

124
Q

What is the process of peer review?

A

1- researcher submits article to journal of choice (may determined by audience/prestige).
2- journal selects two or more appropriate experts (working in similar field) to anonymously peer review article without payment. Peer reviewers assess: methods/designs used, originality of findings, validity of original research findings, content, structure & language.
3- Feedback from reviewer determines if article is accepted. Article may be: accepted as is, with revisions, sent back for author to revise & re-submit or rejected without possibility of submission.
4- editor makes final decision whether to accept/ reject research report based on reviewers comments/ recommendations.

125
Q

What are the strengths (2) and limitations (2) of peer review?

A

Strengths:
1) Can establish validity & accuracy of research (prevents dissemination of incorrect work).
2) Usually anonymous, produces more honest appraisal of work.

Limitation:
1) Often publication bias in journals (editors want publish significant findings to increase likely publish positive results. Other research ignored, creating false impression of state of psychology).
2) Reviewers might use to prevent competing researchers from publishing work/use anonymity to criticise rival researchers (likely as many researchers are in direct competition for limited funding).

126
Q

What are the aims of peer review? (3)

A

1) Allocate research funding: research bodies & government only fund worthwhile projects.
2) Validate quality & relevance of research:
all elements of research are assessed for quality/accuracy, prevent dissemination of irrelevant findings, deliberate fraud & unwarranted claims.
3) Suggest amendment or improvements: ensures research taken seriously & helps identify errors/ weaknesses (because authors/researchers are less objective about own work).

127
Q

What is publication bias?

A

The idea that research with significant findings/positive results is more likely to be published than research with insignificant or negative results

128
Q

How is the internet effecting the idea of peer review? (2)

A

1) Internet means a lot of research & academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before.
2) Systems are evolving on internet where everyone really has a chance to offer opinions & police the quality of research.

129
Q

What does empirical mean?
What does paradigm mean?

A

1) Relying on or derived from observation or experiment.
2) A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline. Kuhn argued against Popper’s idea (induction & deduction), people collected data fitted accepted
assumptions, creating bias within research.

130
Q

What does theory mean?
What does falsification mean?

A

1) A collection of general principles used to explain specific observations and facts.
2) The idea that scientific statements are capable or being proven wrong. Science aims to falsify the hypotheses that it forms.

131
Q

What does paradigm shift mean?
What does scientific process mean?
What does rigorous mean?

A

1) The result of a scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline. Kuhn (2 phases): 1) normal science ( 1 theory dominant, evidence go against dominant, original theory falsified & overthrown. 2) revolutionary shift (new theory becomes dominant).
2) A means of acquiring knowledge based on observable and measurable evidence.
3) Being extremely thorough and careful so to strictly apply or adhere to a system.

132
Q

Theory construction and hypothesis testing:
What is deductive theory construction? (Top down, 5 steps).

A

1) Observations.
2) Prose theory.
3) Testable hypothesis.
4) Conduct study to test.
5) Draw conclusions.

133
Q

Theory construction and hypothesis testing:
What is inductive theory construction (bottom up, 6 steps).

A

1) Observations.
2) Testable hypothesis.
3)Conduct study to test.
4) Draw conclusions.
5) New hypothesis tested.
6) Construct a theory,

Psychology (7 decks)

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