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Biopsychology P2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the structure of a neuron

A

. Cell body has a nucleus containing genetic material
. Dendrites protrude from cell body
. Axon carries impulses away from the cell body down length of neuron
. Myelin sheath protects axon and speeds up electrical transmission
. Axon terminals are end of cell communicate with next neuron

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2
Q

What is a sensory neuron

A

. Found in receptors (eyes ears tongue and skin)
. Carry nerve impulses from peripheral nervous system to cns
. Some impulses stop at spinal cord allowing reflex arcs
. Have long dendrites and short axons

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3
Q

What is a relay neuron

A

. Most common type of neuron
. Found in the brain and spinal cord
. Connect sensory neurons to motoneurons or other really neurons
. Short dendrites and axons
. Carry messages from one part of CNS to another

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4
Q

What is a motor neuron

A

. Carry messages from CNS and control muscle movements
. Release neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on muscles and trigger responses
Muscle relaxation is caused by inhibition of the Motor neuron
. Short dendrites, long axons

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5
Q

Explain the reflex arc

A

. Stimulus presented (fire)
. Sensory neuron send a message through PNS
. Message reaches spinal cord, Passed to relay neuron
. Messages either pasta motoneuron or sensor brain for further processing
. Motor neuron carries message to an effector i.e. muscle gland

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6
Q

Describe synaptic transmission

A

. Nerve impulse travels down axon of presynaptic neuron
. Reaches end of axon, neurotransmitters released from vesicles
. Diffuse across synapse
. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
. Stimulates Post Malone to transmit nerve impulse down axon to next neuron
. Neurotransmitters deactivated by being reabsorbed into presynaptic neuron or being broken down by enzymes in the synapse

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7
Q

Why can impulses only travel in One Direction down a neuron

A

. Diffusion so only goes from high to low concentration of neurotransmitters
. Finding is needed for signal to be passed
. Because synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters and recpetors are are only on one side

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8
Q

Describe inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters

A

. If neurotransmitter inhibitory, neuron becomes negatively charged so less likely to fire
. If neurotransmitter excitatory, neuron becomes positively charged, so more likely to fire

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9
Q

What is summation

A

. Likelihood of the cell firing is determined by adding up excitatory an inhibitory import
. Known as summation

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10
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system and the different subcategories of it

A

. PNS – transmits information to and from cns

. Somatic nervous system – information to and from senses or cns, controls voluntary actions

. Autonomic nervous system – info to and from internal organs to sustain life processes, controls involuntary actions
Auto divided into:
. Sympathetic nervous system – generally increases bodily activities
. Parasympathetic nervous system – generally maintains or decreases bodily activities

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11
Q

What is the central nervous system and the subcategories of it

A

. CNS – concerns with all life functions and psychological processes
. Spinal cord – receives and transmit info to and from brain
. Brain – maintains life, involved in higher functions and psychological processes

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12
Q

What is the spinal cord

A

. An extension of the brain, responsible for reflex actions, responsible for relaying information between brain and rest of body

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13
Q

Give more details about the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

A

. Both subsections of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic:
.  primarily for emergency responses
. Helps prepare the body for rapid action by releasing stored energy, causing pupils dilate and her to stand on end
. Also controls digestion and urination and other less important bodily processes
. VOLUNTARY

Parasympathetic:
. INVOLUNTARY
. Returns body to the restaurant once emergency passes
. Slow heart rate down and other body processes return to normal i.e. digestion

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14
Q

Explain the endocrine system

A

. What is slower than nervous system, more widespread effect
. Releases hormones that regulate bodies growth, metabolism, sexual development and function
. Hormones are released from glands
. Major glands are up to a tree, pineal, adrenals, ovaries and testes, And thyroid
.  pituitary gland is Musterground because it controls all the hormone glands in body including thyroid adrenals ovaries and testes

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15
Q

What do the adrenal, testes, ovaries, and pineal glands release and Joe

A

. Adrenal – Adrenaline – triggers fight or flight, increase heart rate, Dilated Pupils

. Testes – testosterone – causes development of testes in the womb, surge of testosterone during puberty also responsible for secondary sexual characteristics i.e. facial hair and deep voice

. Ovaries – oestrogen, progesterone – regulate menstrual cycle, oestrogen involved in repairing of the curing uterus lining, progesterone maintains uterus lining

. Pineal – melatonin – regulate sleep wake cycle is, high melatonin cause drowsiness and daylight is low

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16
Q

explain the flight or fight response

A

. fight or flight is sypmathetic response
. hypothalamus directs sympathetic branch of autonomic ns tot he adrenal gland
. releases adrenaline causing fight or flight
. activates increased heart rate, dilated pupils, increased breathing, inhibits digestion, dec slaiva production, contracts rectum, sends oxygne to muscles
. parasympathetic response comes after and causes opposite response to these

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17
Q

why might fight or flight be gender biased

A

. taylor et al found females sometimes adopt ‘tend and befriend’ in stressful sitches
. more likely to tend to offspring
. may befriend other women rather than fight or flee
. research into f or f is gender bias as it may only apply to males

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18
Q

what is localistaion of function

A

. idea that different brain processes are allocated to specific areas
. previously believed that all parts were involved (holistic)

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19
Q

Where are: frontal lobe, visual, auditory, motor, somatosensory, brocas and wernickes located in the brain

A

. Frontal lobe at the front of the brain
. Visual – at the back of the brain
. Auditory – bottom of the brain above the spinal cord
. Motor – top of brain
. Somatosensory – top of brain behind motor
. Brocas – frontal lobe between frontal and auditory
. Wernickes – behind brocas

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20
Q

Explain auditory centres in the brain

A

. Human brain has two primary auditory courses, one in each hemisphere
. They receive information from two pathways connected to ears
. Located in the temporal lobe
. If damaged, could result in hearing loss

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21
Q

Explain motor centres in the brain

A

. Motor cortex sends messages to muscles via brain stem and spinal cord
. Responsible for generating voluntary motor movement
. Located at the back of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres
. Each hemisphere controls movement in the opposite side of the body
. Damage can result in the loss of control over fine movement

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22
Q

Explain this Somatosensory centres

A

. Located next to the motor cortex in the brain
. What is sensory information from skin is represented
. Perceives touch
. Located at the front of the parietal lobe in both hemispheres
. Each hemisphere receives information from the opposite side of the body

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23
Q

Explain visual centres in the brain

A

. Brain has two visual courses, one in each hemisphere
. Located in the occipital lobe at the back of the brain
. Each items information from a visual field to the opposite visual cortex
. This means damage to left hemisphere results in blindness in the right visual field of both eyes and vice versa

24
Q

Explain language centres of the brain

A

. Both brocas and wernickes located in the left hemisphere

.brocas
. Area of the brain is responsible for speech production
. Located in the left frontal lobe
. Damage causes brokers aphasia which is characterised by speech to slow laborious and lacking in fluency

Wernickes
. Used for understanding language and access in words
. Patients with wernickes aphasia often produce nonsense words as part of the speech
. Located in the left temporal lobe

25
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of localisation of function

A

. S in 1861, patients had met Paul broca at the hospital in France, Tam could only say the word tan, upon post-mortem found a lesion in region of his brain, concluded that his aphasia was caused by damage to this region and thus this area controls speech, increases validity

. S personal 1988 used brain scans, showed wernickes area with active during listening task and brocas active during reading task
. S holding it all 1994 showed episodic and semantic memories we recall from different sides of the prefrontal cortex was procedural memory is associated with cerebellum
. Shows wider evidence that supports

. W Lashley 1950 removed between 10-50% of the cortex in rats that were learning a maze, found no area more important are there in terms of ability to learn, suggests higher cognitive processes such as learning not localised are distributed, reduces validity

. W when brain damage through illness or accident, particular function is lost, rest of Granny‘s able to re-organise yourself to recover function E.G.talk at all 2000 to discover patients of the damage to left hemisphere developed passive speaking right hemisphere, suggest functions are not localised in the brain can adopt phone damage

26
Q

What is hemispheric lateralisation

A

. The idea that the 2/2 of the brain are functionally different
. Certain mental processes and behaviours controlled by 100 by rather than the other

27
Q

What connects the two hemispheres of the brain And what does contralateral mean

A

. Hemispheres connected by corpus callosum, is a bundle of fibres actors of communication pathway between two hemispheres
. Contralateral – left hemisphere controls right side of the body, right hemisphere controls left side of the body

28
Q

What does the left hemisphere of the brain control

A

. Language processing, computation, logical reasoning
. Those who have strokes on the left side of my brain often has affected speech due to brocas and wernickes being located on the left side

29
Q

What does the right hemisphere of the brain control

A

. Facial recognition, spatial reasoning, music

30
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of hemispheric lateralisation

A

. S FINK 1996 used pet scans to identify which brain regions active during visual task, participants attended global elements of an image, regions of right hemisphere more active when required focusing on final detail left times there was more dominant, suggesting visual processing is a feature of connected brain

. W plasticity doesn’t support lateralisation, (damaged and function is lost, rest of brain able to re-organise itself to recover function

. W contradictory evidence from animal research, Lashley removed cortex of rats and found there was no area that was more important than another, suggests functional processes are holistic brothers rather tha. lateralised

. W lateralisation movie further complicated by age, Szflarski 2006 found language became more lateralised to the left hemisphere of children develop into adolescence but after the 25 validation decrease with with life, suggest it is more complex than many realise and research may not be generalisable to population

31
Q

What was the procedure of Sperry 1968

A

. Studied 11 split brain patients who had the corpus callosum court to cure severe epilepsy

. Verbal recognition task – visual image was presented to the left visual field (process by right hemisphere) using specialist equipment, asked to describe have been seen, repeated using right visual field

. Touch recognition task – patients hands screen so they could not see objects in front of them, patients pick up an object using right-hand (left hemisphere), asked to describe what they had felt and repeated using left

. Drawing task – image presented in different visual fields and participants asked to draw what date seen

32
Q

What was the procedure of Sperry 1968

A

. Verbal recognition task – when picture shown in right visual field, could describe the scene however if shown in left, patient couldn’t describe or seen because language is processed in left hemisphere so when given to right hemisphere couldn’t describe it

. Recognition by coach – patients couldn’t verbally describe objects projected in left visual field, able to select matching objects from a grab bag of different objects using left-hand, objects placed behind a screen so not seen, left-hand also able to select an object that was most closely associated with an object presented to the left visual field, patient not able to verbally identify what did seem to understand object using right hemisphere is like corresponding object accordingly

. Drawing task – represented in right field could say what they’ve seen, if there’s anything left field couldn’t but could draw it with left hand

33
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Sperry 1968

A

. S used to support idea of lateralisation, images flashed up for a 10th of the second child was not time to spread information across both sides of visual field, High internal validity
. W only 11 patients took part in all variations of basic procedure, all had epilepsy, all had received drug therapy, control group consisted of participants with no history of epilepsy making a poorly notch, problematic brings conclusion of research in spite of lateralisation into doubt

34
Q

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) and evaluations

A

. Detects changes in blood oxygen and flow in brain
. One brain area more active consumes more oxygen and blood flow is directed to active area
. FMRI produces 3-D images showing which part of brain is involved in particular mental processes

. S Less invasive than other scans, don’t use radiation or instruments inserted into the brain, almost risk free 
. S good spatial resolution of one to 2 mm, allow psychologist to investigate brain regions with greater accuracy
. W Expensive to buy and maintain and require train operators
. W Low temporal resolution, one to 4 seconds, worse than other techniques, reduces accuracy

35
Q

What is spatial and temporal resolution

A

. Spatial – the smallest measurement of a scanner can detect, greater s res increases accuracy
. Temporal – the accuracy of the scanner in relation to time

36
Q

Evaluate electroencephalogram (EEG) and event related potentials (ERP)

A

. EEG measure electrical activity within the brain using electrodes fixed to scalp using skull cap, shows brainwave patterns generated from action of millions of neurons, provides overall account of brain activity

. ERP stimulus such as picture or sound presented many times to participant, using statistical averaging technique random background brain activity is filtered out leaving only event related potentials, most widely used method in psychology

. S both less invasive than other scanning techniques, don’t use radiation or instruments, virtually risk free
. S Cheaper compared to earth MRI scanning, more widely available
. S Hi temporal resolution, take readings every millisecond so record activity in real time
. W Poor spatial resolution, detect activity in superficial regions of brain, unable to provide information on what is happening in deeper reasons so limited

37
Q

Evaluate Post-mortem examinations

A

. Involves analysing a persons brain following their death, often uses patients with rare disorders, involves comparison with a normal brain to a certain extent of the difference

. S provide detailed examinations of structures of the brain not possible with other techniques and can access areas like hypothalamus and hippocampus
. S ethical issues relating to informed consent, often use patients with severe psychological deficits so maybe couldn’t give informed consent anyway
. W issue of causation, any deaths has found in the brain may not actually relate to deficit in patients live time, copy result of other illness so psychologist unable to conclude with 100% certainty that deficit is caused by damage in the brain

38
Q

What is brain plasticity

A

. The brains ability to change your adapt because of experience and new learning
. During infancy, brain experiences rapid growth in Synoptic connections, Has more than the adult brain
. Through age synaptic pruning occurs, really use synaptic connections are deleted and frequently use connections strengthened, enables lifelong plasticity

39
Q

What is functional recovery

A

. A type of plasticity
. Usually follows brain trauma
. Is the brains ability to redistribute or transfer function is usually performed by a damaged area to another undamaged area

40
Q

What structural changes occur in the brain to allow brain plasticity

A

. Axonal sprouting – growth of new nerve endings, connect with other undamage nerve cells, forms new neuronal pathways
. Denervation supersensitivity – axons doing similar jobs become highly aroused to compensate for lost axons, can make area over sensitive to pain
. Recruitment of homologous areas – arisen officers had a brain perform specific tasks, similar area on undamaged side would carry out its function instead
. The role of masking – some neutrons are dormant, when damaged, dormant areas become unmask, opens new connections in regions not normally activated

41
Q

What are factors increase brain plasticity

A

. Age – younger = more plastic
. Being female
. Being Neurotypical
. Being an education currently

42
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of brain plasticity

A

. S Maguire at all 2000 used MRI scanner to scan brains of London taxi drivers, they had significantly more volume of gray matter in posterior hippocampus then a control group, volume of the area was also positively correlated with him at a time of being a driver

. S Hubel and Wiesel 1963 sewed one of kittens eyes and the brains cortical responses were analysed, find area of the visual cortex associated with short I was not ideal, continue to process information from the open I, supports idea of the brain damage can change your adapt as result of experience

. S research of plasticity does not completely stop as we age, Bezzola 2012 recruited 40 to 60 yr novice golfers to complete 40 hrs of training, used MRI scan, observed increased motor cortex than control group

. W plasticity can be negative, 60 to 80% of amputees found to develop phantom limb syndrome, experience of sensations in the missing limb, sensation is unpleasant painful and thoughts were due to cortical reorganisation in the somatosensory cortex because of loss

43
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of functional recovery

A

. S practical applications, research has contributed to neuro rehabilitation
. W is affected by individual differences E.G.cognitive reserve, found more time people with a brain jury had spent in education, greater the chances of disability free recovery

44
Q

What is a circadian rhythm

A

. A cycle in biological or psychological activity that occurs once every 24 hours
. The sleep wake cycle is a circadian rhythm
. Core body temperature also is circadian as its highest around 4 pm and lowest around 4 am
. release of melatonin from pineal gland, peak levels and production occur during hours of darkness, melatonin encourages feelings of sleep, in light production of melatonin drops and person weeks
. Light and dark are Exogenous zeitgebers, they go and sleep wake cycle, stronger sleep Drive usually occurs between 2 to 4 am and one to 3 pm

45
Q

Evaluate Circadian rhythms and explain research into circadian rhythms

A

Research
. siffre lived underground in a cabin taxes for six months call mum no external cues, found sleep wake cycle settled into free running rid of 25 hours
. FOLKARD 1996 Study university student Kate Oldcroft who spent 25 days in control environment of lab, no access to daylight, at the end of the 25 days sleep wake cycle had extended to 30 hours

. S research provides understanding of consequences occurring when circadian rhythms are disrupted and can have real world economic implications in terms of productivity

. W usually involve small samples, means research is ungeneralisable

46
Q

What is an infradian rhythm

A

. Last longer than 24 hours
. Involve menstruation, Reading, hibernation, and seasonal affective disorder
. Registration is a monthly of radium rhythm governed by changes in hormones regulating ovulation, typically last 28 days, rising oestrogen cause ovaries to release an egg, after ovulation progesterone helps the womb lining to thicken readying forpregnancy, if pregnancy doesn’t occur egg absorbed in the body, womb lining sheds and leaves the body

47
Q

Evaluate infradian rhythms and explain research

A

Research
. McClintock – 29 women with irregular period studied, pheromones gathered from 9 women at different stages of menstrual cycle, pads rubbed on their armpits then on the lips of the irregular participants, found that 60% of women experienced changes to the cycle bringing them closer to the cycle of the donor

. S Infradian rhythms supported by theory of evolution, may have been advantageous for women to men straight together and become pregnant at the same time, in social groups this would allow orphaned babies to have access to breastmilk improving chances of survival

. W limitations to synchronisation studies, many factors that may cause menstrual cycle to change including stress extreme dieting and exercise so can’t prove causation

48
Q

What is an ultradian rhythm

A

. Biological rhythms lasting less than 24 hours
. Include blinking, heartbeat, sleep patterns, breathing, polls, appetite, and digestion

Sleep patterns (merchant ships 🥲)
. Sleep stages lost around 90 minutes
1 – light sleep, person is Easily woken, Alpha brain waves occur
2 – Light sleep continues, sleep spindles also occasionally occur
3 & 4 – Deep Sleep or slow wave sleep, Delta waves occur with lower frequency and higher amplitude, difficult to wake someone
5 – What is paralysed your brain activity closely resembles that of a weak brain, brain produces Theta waves and eyes move around, REM-sleep

49
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of ultradian rhythms

A

. S has improved understanding of age-related changes in sleep, SWS reduces with age, reduced alertness in the elderly, suggests practical applications
. W ignore individual differences E.G. Tucker 2007 found large differences in duration of sleep stages in many participants making it difficult to generalise

50
Q

what is an endogenous pacemaker

A

. internal body clocks that regulate biological rythms

51
Q

what is the most important endogenous pacemaker and what is entrainment

A

. the scn - superchiasmatic nucleus
. is a tiny bundle of nerve cells located in hypothalamus, if scn is damaged/destroyed sleep becomes erratic
. lies above the optic chiasm, receives info about light directly from op chai, continues even when asleep allowing body to awaken even in changing daylight patterns
. entrainment - process of adjusting sleep wake cycle to external exogenous pacemaker of daylight levels

52
Q

explain how the pineal gland is affected by exogenous pacemakers

A

. scn sends light info to pineal gland
. at night pineal gland inc melatonin levels
. increased darkness in winter leads to increased melatonin production which has been linked to seasonal affective disorder

53
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of endogenous pacemakers

A

. S morgan 1995, found if scn removed from hamsters, sleep wake cycle disappeared, transplanting foetal scn cells re-established sleep wake cycle

. S siffre 1975 lived in cave for 6m with no external cues, sleep wake cycle remained at 25 hours. however still changed abit

. W folkard 1996 studied kate aldcroft who spent 25 days in lab with no ext cues, sleep wake had expanded to 30 hours, suggests exogenous zeitgebers are needed for circadian rhythms

54
Q

what are exogenous zeitgebers

A

. environmental events that are responsible for entraining the scn

55
Q

what are the main exogenous zeitgebers that affect humans

A

. light levels - maintains sleep wake cycle, resets the scn, scn uses light levels to synch body organ activity and glands, keeps body on 24 hr cycle
. social cues - mealtimes, bedtimes, and social events act as zeitgebers and can be used to entrain circadian rythms

56
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of exogenous zeitgebers

A

. S campbell and murphy 1998, found shining light on bck of knee shifted the circadian rhythm, proves entraining
. S practical applications for jetlag
. W miles 1977 studied blind man, despite social cues his sleep wake remained 24,9 hrs indicating other factors like light levels may play more crucial roles in regulating circadian rythms

Psychology (8 decks)

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