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PSYCHOLOGY (paper 2) > biopsychology 3 > Flashcards

biopsychology 3 Flashcards

1
Q

how many biological rhythms are there and how do they differ?

A

there are three biological rhythms which differ in length

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2
Q

what are the three biological rhythms?

A

circadian - about a day
infradian - more than 24 hours
ultradian - less than 24 hours

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3
Q

what is a circadian rhythms?

A

a biological rhythm that is subject to a 24-hour cycle and reset by light (the primary input)

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4
Q

example of circadian rhythms:

A

-the sleep wake cycle
-body temperature

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5
Q

what are circadian rhythms driven by?

A

our body clocks, found in all cells in the body and synchronised by the master endogenous pacemaker, the SCN

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6
Q

what must be reset?
(circadian rhythms)

A

-this pacemaker (SCN) must be constantly reset each day so that our bodies are in synchrony with the outside world
-light entrains circadian rhythms by daily resetting the SCN

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7
Q

light cells in mammals:

A

-in mammals, light sensitive cells within the eye act as brightness detectors & send messages about environmental light levels directly to the SCN
-the SCN then uses this information to coordinate the activity of the entire circadian system

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8
Q

what is the circadian system intolerant of?

A

any major alterations in sleep and wake schedules (e.g: jet lag, shift work) as they cause the biological clock to become desynchronised

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9
Q

which structures are important for circadian rhythms?

A

-SCN (a small region of the brain in the hypothalamus)
-hypothalamus
-pituitary gland
-pineal gland

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10
Q

how does light affect sleeping?
(steps)

A

1) light levels drop

2) the lack of light in the environment is detected by the optic nerve

3) the signal is then picked up by the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) which is a region of the brain in the hypothalamus

4) this signal activates the pineal gland

5) the pineal gland signals for the release of melatonin

6) melatonin decreases brain activity and you become tired

7) this makes us sleepy

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11
Q

how does light affect waking?
(steps)

A

1) light enters eye through pupils

2) the light in the environment is detected by the optic nerve

3) the signal is then picked up by the SCN

4) this signal activates the pineal gland which stops the production of melatonin

5) this makes us feel awake

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12
Q

which research was done into the sleep wake cycle?

A

siffre (1975)

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13
Q

aim of the siffre study:

A

to investigate the role of the exogenous zeitgeber of light on the sleep wake cycle

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14
Q

method of siffre study:

A

-in a cave in texas, siffre spent 6 months with a dim lamp and no external cues to tell him what time of day it was
-he had access to books, food, water and exercise equipment
-a one-way telephone link to the outside was set up so he could check in on a daily basis
-siffre also had equipment to
monitor his bodily functions

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15
Q

results of the siffre study:

A

-although siffre’s bodily rhythms were desynchronised at first, they eventually became regular in respect to eating and sleep wake
-his sleep wake cycle wasn’t 24 hours as we would expect if the SCN was totally dominant, but slightly longer (24 hours and 30 minutes)

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16
Q

conclusion of the siffre study:

A

-the circadian rhythm for sleep/wake can run independent of the exogenous zeitgeber of light
-therefore our internal factor, the SCN is dominant in controlling our biological
rhythms
-however, external factors such as light are needed to entrain our rhythm into 24 hours

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17
Q

strength of siffre study:

A

-it was able to identify the effect of external cues on circadian rhythms

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18
Q

ao3 / strength - the study was able to identify the effect of external cues on circadian rhythms

A

P - the study was able to identify the effect of external cues on circadian rhythms

E - siffre (1975) found that the absence of external cues significantly altered his circadian rhythm
↳ when he returned a cave with no clocks or light, he believed the date to be
a month earlier than it was.
↳ his 24-hour sleep-wake cycle was
increased to 25 hours by the lack of external cues

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19
Q

weakness of the siffre study:

A

the study is androcentric

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20
Q

ao3 / weakness - the study is androcentric

A

P - siffre’s research looking at the control of circadian rhythms can be criticised as being androcentric

E - the research from siffre is only looking at the control of circadian rhythms from a male perspective
(only male participants)
↳ this is a weakness because females are physiologically different to males (they experience different biological processes such as the menstrual cycle, therefore, it could be the case that female sleep/wake cycles are controlled in different ways by different internal and external

L - this means that we need to be careful using this study as evidence for circadian
rhythm

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21
Q

strengths of circadian rhythms:

A

-there are practical applications of the research of circadian rhythms (pharmacokinetics)
-there are practical applications of the research of circadian rhythms (shift work)

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22
Q

ao3 / strength - there are practical applications of the research of circadian rhythms (pharmacokinetics)

A

P - there are practical applications of the research of circadian rhythms (pharmacokinetics)

E - baraldo reports that absorption of drugs may be influenced by circadian rhythms → some drugs seem to be absorbed faster when the drug is taken in the morning compared with the
evening
↳ this has led to production guidelines concerning the timing of drug
dosing for anticancer and antiepileptic drugs

L - this evidence shows the benefit of research into circadian rhythms
beyond the understanding of the sleep/wake cycle

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23
Q

ao3 / strength - there are practical applications of the research of circadian rhythms (shift work)

A

P - there are practical applications of the research of circadian rhythms (shift work)

E - shift work has been found to lead to desynchronization of circadian
rhythms and can lead to adverse cognitive and physiological effects
↳ research has shown that night shift workers suffer a concentration
lapse at 6am, increasing the likelihood of accidents

L - this research has many economic implications, in terms of maintaining worker productivity and preventing accidents in the workplace.

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24
Q

weakness of circadian rhythms:

A

individual differences

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25
Q

ao3 / weakness - individual differences

A

P - one of the key issues in circadian rhythms is that of individual
differences

E - there have been differences related to the length of CR in different
people
↳ duffy et al found that ‘morning people’ prefer to rise and go
to bed early (about 6am and 10pm) whereas ‘evening people’ prefer
to wake up and go to bed later (about 10am and 1am)

L - this demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in circadian rhythms and so our knowledge may not apply to all people

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26
Q

what is an infradian rhythm?

A

rhythms that last longer than 24 hours (can be monthly or yearly)

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27
Q

example of infradian rhythms:

A

monthly example: menstrual cycle
seasonal example: seasonal affective
disorder (S.A.D)

28
Q

menstrual cycle & hormones:

A

-is governed by monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation
-rising levels of ostrogen cause the ovary to develop an egg and release it (ovulation)
-after ovulation, progesterone levels increase and the womb lining grows thicker
-if the egg is not fertilised, then the egg is absorbed into the body and the womb lining is shed (menstruation)

29
Q

how long is the menstrual cycle?

A

-the typical cycle takes approximately 28 days to complete
-the length can vary due to diet, age, stress

30
Q

which endogenous pacemakers affect the menstrual cycle?

A

oestrogen & progesterone

31
Q

which exogenous zeitgeibers affect the menstrual cycle?

A

diet, stress, other females

32
Q

explanation of seasonal affective disorder

A

-seasonal fluctuations in mood, where some people become depressed during the winter months, this has a yearly cycle
-psychologists suggest that melatonin (secreted by the pineal gland during the night) is partly responsible
-the lack of light during the winter months results in longer period of melatonin secretion, which disrupts psychological and physical health, which has been linked to depressive symptoms

33
Q

endogenous pacemakers that affect S.A.D:

A

SCN, pineal gland, melatonin

34
Q

exogenous zeitgeibers that affect S.A.D:

A

light

35
Q

strengths of the menstrual cycle:

A

-the menstrual cycle is, to some extent,
governed by exogenous zeitgebers (light)
-the menstrual cycle is, to some extent,
governed by exogenous zeitgebers (other females)

36
Q

ao3 / strength - the menstrual cycle is, to some extent, governed by exogenous zeitgebers (light)

+ however

A

P - the menstrual cycle is, to some extent, governed by exogenous zeitgebers (light)

E - reinberg examined a woman who spent three months in a cave with only a small lamp to provide light
↳ reinberg noted that her menstrual cycle shortened from the usual 28 days to 25.7 days

L - this result suggests that the lack of light in the cave affected her menstrual cycle, and therefore this demonstrates the effect of external factors on infradian rhythms

HOWEVER - it was a limited sample which limits the generalisability

37
Q

ao3 / strength - there is further evidence to suggest that exogenous zeitgebers can affect infradian rhythms (other females)

A

P - there is further evidence to suggest that exogenous zeitgebers can affect infradian rhythms (other females)

E - russell et al. found that female menstrual cycles became synchronised with other females through odour exposure
↳ in one study, sweat samples from one group of women were rubbed onto the upper lip of another group
↳ despite the fact that the two groups were separate, their menstrual cycles synchronised

L - this suggests that the synchronisation of infradian rhythms (menstrual cycles) can be affected by pheromones (EZ), which have an effect on people nearby rather than on the person producing them

38
Q

ao3 about S.A.D

A

-evidence supports the role of melatonin in S.A.D

39
Q

ao3 / strength - evidence supports the role of melatonin in S.A.D

A

P - terman (1988) found that the rate of SAD is more common in northern countries where the winter nights are longer
↳ for example, terman found that SAD affects roughly 10% of people living in new hampshire (a northern part of the US) and only 2% of residents in southern florida

L - these results suggest that SAD is in part affected by light (exogenous zeitgeber) that results in increased levels of melatonin
↳ this means that the research has implications for S.A.D treatment such as light therapy & melatonin treatment

40
Q

outline one or more examples of infradian rhythms (4 marks)

A

infradian rhythms last longer than 24 hours. an example of an infradian rhythm is the female menstrual cycle which is a monthly cycle of around 28 days

the menstrual cycle is regulated by
hormones that either promote ovulation or stimulate the uterus for fertilisation

another example of an infradian rhythm is seasonal affective disorder (SAD).
research has found seasonal variation in mood, where people become depressed in the winter months. the lack of
light during the winter months results in longer period of melatonin secretion, which disrupts psychological and physical health, which has been linked to depressive symptoms.

SAD is an infradian rhythm governed by a yearly cycle

41
Q

outline what research into infradian rhythms has found (4 marks)

A

this question just wants findings and conclusions NOT details of the
study

russell at al found that female menstrual cycles became synchronised with other females due to odour exposure. this
suggests that synchronisation of menstrual cycles can be affected
by pheromones (external factors)

reinburg found that a woman who lived in a cave for 3 months had a shortened menstrual cycle from 28 to 25.7 days. this suggests that the lack of light affected her menstrual cycle

42
Q

what is an ultradian rhythm?

A

rhythms that occur more than once within a 24 hour period

43
Q

what is the example of ultradian rhythms?

A

the stages of sleep

44
Q

how many sleep stages are there and how long are they?

A

psychologists have identified five distinct stages of sleep that altogether span 90 mins (a cycle that continues throughout the course of the night)

45
Q

what is the difference between the sleep stages?

A

each of the sleep stages is characterised by a different level of brain wave activity which can be monitored using an EEG

46
Q

sleep stage 1 - name & description

A

NREM
-head hits pillow → light stage of sleep
-muscle activity slows down
-muscle twitching

47
Q

sleep stage 1 - brain activity

A

alpha waves – high frequency, low amplitude

48
Q

sleep stage 2 - description

A

NREM
deeper relaxation: breathing, heart rate
and temperature slow down/drop

49
Q

sleep stage 2 - body & brain activity

A

-theta waves (slower than alpha waves) and sleep spindles
–rapid bursts of higher frequency/amplitude brain waves

50
Q

sleep stage 3 - description

A

NREM
-transitionary stage of sleep
–transfer into deeper stage of sleep -shorter than other stages

51
Q

sleep stage 3 - brain activity

A

-slower delta waves begin
(characteristic of deeper sleep)

52
Q

sleep stage 4 - description

A

NREM
deep sleep – difficult to wake up
(disorientated if woken up)

53
Q

sleep stage 4 - brain activity

A

delta waves - low frequency, high amplitude waves

54
Q

sleep stage 5 - description

A

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
↳ associated with dreaming

55
Q

sleep stage 5 - body and brain activity

A

-brain waves similar to waves produced when we are awake (paradoxical sleep stage)
-heart rate increases, breathing is
shallow and rapid
-muscle paralysis occurs– probably so we don’t act out our dreams

56
Q

what is a complete cycle of the sleep cycle?

A

-a complete cycle consists of a progression through the 4 stages of NREM sleep before entering the
final stage of REM sleep
-the cycle then starts again

57
Q

study that supports ultradian rhythms:

A

dement and kleitman (1957)

58
Q

aim of dement and kleitman study:

A

to research the relationship between REM and dreaming

59
Q

method of dement and kleitman study:

A

-dement and kleitman monitored the sleep patterns of 9 adult participants in the sleep lab
-brainwave activity was recorded on an EEG and electrodes were placed
near eyes to measure eye movement while sleeping
-researchers controlled for the effects of caffeine and alcohol

60
Q

findings of dement and kleitman study:

A

-when woken during REM sleep,
particpants were more likely to
report dreaming than in non-REM sleep
-the pattern of eye movements
related to dream content

61
Q

conclusions of dement and kleitman study:

A

the study suggests that the REM stage of sleep is associated with dreaming and that this is distinct from other stages in the ultradian sleep cycle

62
Q

strength of ultradian rhythms:

A

there is evidence to support the ultradian rhythm of sleep stages

63
Q

ao3 / strength - there is evidence to support the ultradian rhythm of sleep stages

A

P - there is evidence to support the ultradian rhythm of sleep stages

E - dement and kleitman (1957) monitored the sleep patterns of 9 adults in a sleep laboratory
↳ brainwave activity was recorded on an EEG and they found that REM activity during sleep was highly correlated with reports of dreaming
↳ they also found that brain activity varied according to how vivid the dreams were
↳ replications of this research have reported similar findings

L - the study suggests that the REM stage of sleep is associated with dreaming and that this is distinct from other stages in the ultradian sleep cycle

64
Q

criticisms of ultradian rhythms:

A

-however point to research support
(dement and kleitman)
-there are individual differences in sleep cycles

65
Q

ao3 / criticism - however point to research support (dement and kleitman)

A

P - however point to research support
(dement and kleitman)

E - although the research is well-controlled, the studies are carried out in sleep laboratories, where participants are connected up to EEG machines
↳ this may disrupt the person’s normal sleep patterns, leading to false conclusions being drawn

E - the samples are typically small, making it difficult to generalise the findings, especially as individual differences have been found in sleep cycles
↳ for example, tucker et al. (2007) found significant differences between participants in the length of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4

L -

66
Q

ao3 / criticism -

A

P -

PSYCHOLOGY (paper 2) (18 decks)

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