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PAPER 2 - PSYCHOLOGY > BIOPSYCHOLOGY > Flashcards

BIOPSYCHOLOGY Flashcards

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1
Q

Define nervous system

A

Consists of the central nervous system and the principle nervous system.
Communicates using electrical signals

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2
Q

What is the primary internal communication system

A

The nervous system

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3
Q

What are the two main functions of the nervous system

A

To collect, process and respond to information in the environment.
To co-ordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body

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4
Q

Name the two subsystems of the nervous system

A

The central nervous system (CNS)
The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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5
Q

Define central nervous system

A

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions

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6
Q

Define the peripheral nervous system

A

Sends information to the CNS from the outside world, and transmits messages from CNS to muscles and glands in the body

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7
Q

Where is the centre of all conscious awareness

A

The brain

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8
Q

How thick is the cerebral cortex

A

3mM

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9
Q

What is the only type of organisms that have the cerebral cortex

A

Mammals

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10
Q

How is the brain divided

A

Into two hemispheres

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11
Q

How does the PNS transmit messages

A

Via millions of neurons

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12
Q

Name the two components of the PNS

A

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Somatic nervous system (SNS)

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13
Q

Define the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A

Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs the system operates automatically.

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14
Q

What are the two main states sof the autonomic nervous system

A

The sympathetic state
The parasympathetic state

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15
Q

Define the somatic nervous system (SNS)

A

Transmits information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS.
Also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act.

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16
Q

Define the endocrine system

A

A system that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream.
These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body.

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17
Q

Which is faster the nervous system or the endocrine system

A

The nervous system

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18
Q

How does the endocrine system communicate

A

Via chemicals

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19
Q

Define gland

A

An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones

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20
Q

Define hormones

A

A biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs.
They are produces in large quantities but disappear quickly.

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21
Q

What cells are effected by a particular hormone

A

The ones that have receptors for that particular hormone

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22
Q

Give an example of one organ and hormone affecting two places in the body
(Thyroid gland)

A

Thyroid gland secretes thyroxine.
Thyroxine increases heart rate by affecting cells in the heart.
Also affects cells throughout the body increasing metabolic rates - in turn affecting growth rates.

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23
Q

What is the key / ‘master gland’
Why

A

Pituitary gland
It controls the release of hormones from all other endocrine glands in the body

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24
Q

Which two systems often work up parallel with each other

A

The endocrine system and the autonomic be our system

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25
Q

What is an example of a situation where the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system work together

A

During s stressful event

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26
Q

What is the first events that occur when a stressor is perceived

A

The Hypochampus activates the pituitary glad and this triggers activity in the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
The ANS changes from its normal resting state (parasympathetic state) to the physiologically around sympathetic state.

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27
Q

What hormone takes park in the fight or flight response

A

Adrenalin

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28
Q

Outline what happens with adrenalin in the fight or flight response

A

Adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream.
Adrenaline triggers physiological changes in the body (e.g. increased heart rate) which creates the physiological arousal necessary for the fight or flight response

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29
Q

What two words describe the reaction in the body to the fight or flight response

A

Acute response and an automatic reaction in the body

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30
Q

List the 6 biological changes associated with the sympathetic response

A

Increased heart rate
Increased breathing rate
Dilates pupils
Inhibits digestion
Inhibits saliva production
Contracts rectum

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31
Q

What system returns the body to its resting state once the threat has passed

A

The parasympathetic nervous system

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32
Q

The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system work in ____

A

Opposite to each other

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33
Q

List the 6 biological changes associated with the parasympathetic response

A

Decreased heart rate
Decreased breathing rate
Constricts pupils
Stimulates digestion
Stimulates saliva production
Relaxes rectum

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34
Q

Define adrenalin

A

A hormone produced by the adrenal glands which is part of the human body’s immediate stress response system.

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35
Q

What are the effects of adrenalin on the cardiovascular system
What does it specifically effect and how
To what extent

A

Has a strong effect on the cells of the cardiovascular system - stimulating heart rate, contracting blood vessels and dilating air passages.

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36
Q

What is the nervous systems average response time

A

0.25 seconds

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37
Q

How long can an endocrine response take

A

Several seconds to days

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38
Q

Why is the endocrine system slower than the nervous system

A

Hormones have to travel through the bloodstream

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39
Q

How many neurons are there in the nervous system

A

100 billion

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40
Q

What percentage of neurones are located in the brain

A

80%

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41
Q

How do neuron’s provide the nervous system with its primary means of communication

A

By transmitting signals electrically and chemically

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42
Q

Define neurons

A

The basic building blocks of the nervous system, neuron’s are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals

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43
Q

Name the three types of neuron’s in order of the direction of conduction

A

Sensory, relay, motor

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44
Q

Where do sensory neurons carry messages from and to

A

Carry messages from the PNS to the CNS

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45
Q

What are the two defining features of sensory neuron’s

A

Long dendrites and short axons

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46
Q

Where do relay neuron’s conduct impulses from and to

A

Connect the sensory neuron’s to the motor and other relay neuron’s

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47
Q

What are the two defining features of relay neurons

A

Short dendrites and short axons

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48
Q

Where do motor neurons carry impulses from and to

A

From the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands

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49
Q

What are two defining features of motor neurons

A

Short dendrites and long axons

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50
Q

What are the sizes in which a neuron can vary

A

Less than a millimetre to up to a meter long

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51
Q

What does the cell body contain
What does that contain itself

A

Cell body contains a nucleus which contains the genetic material of the cell

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52
Q

What protrudes from the cell body
What do these carry impulses from and to

A

Dendrites
Carry impulses from the neighbouring neurons towards the cell body

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53
Q

Where does the axon carry impulses

A

Away from the cell body down the length of the neuron

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54
Q

What is the fatty layer that covers the axon called
What is its purpose (2)

A

The myelin sheath
Protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of the impulse

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55
Q

What would occur if the myelin sheath was continuous
What is in place to prevent this

A

There would be reverse effects and slow down electrical impulses
Nodes of ranvier - segmented gaps

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56
Q

How do the nodes of ranvier further speed up impulses

A

Speed up the transmission of impulses by forcing it to ‘jump’ across the gaps.

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57
Q

What is at the end of the axon

A

Terminal buttons

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58
Q

What is the gap between two neurons called

A

Synapse

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59
Q

Where are motor neurons found
Cell bodies
Axons

A

The cell bodies are in the CNS
But long axons form part of the PNS

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60
Q

Where are sensory neurons found

A

Outside the CNS in the PNS

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61
Q

What are the clusters of sensory neurons in the PNS called

A

Ganglia

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62
Q

What percentage of neurons are relay neurons

A

97%

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63
Q

Where are most relay neurons found

A

In the brain and the visual system

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64
Q

When a neurone is in resting state what is the charge like inside and outside the neuron

A

In resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside

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65
Q

When a neuron is activated by a stimulus when is the charge like inside and outside the cell

A

The inside of the cell becomes positively charges for a split second

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66
Q

What is cause by the inside of a neuron being positive charged for a second

A

An action potential

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67
Q

If the action potential is reached what occurs with electrical impulses

A

They travel down the axon towards the end of the neuron

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68
Q

Neuron’s communicate with each other within groups know as what

A

Neural networks

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69
Q

Are signals between synapses transmitted electrically or chemically

A

Chemically

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70
Q

What is the scientific term for the end of the neuron

A

The presynaptic terminal

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71
Q

When the electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic terminal what occurs
Triggers what from where

A

Triggers the realise of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles

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72
Q

Define synaptic transmission

A

The process by which neighbouring neuron’s communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synapse that separates them

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73
Q

Define neurotransmitter

A

brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another.

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74
Q

Where are neurotransmitters released from

A

Synaptic vesicles

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75
Q

What two categories can neurotransmitters be divided into

A

Those that perform an excitatory function and those that perform an inhibitory function

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76
Q

When a neurotransmitter crosses the synapse what takes it up.
Where is this located

A

Taken up by a postsynaptic receptor site
Located on the dendrites of the next neuron

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77
Q

What occurs to the chemical message at the postsynaptic receptor site

A

The chemical message is converted back into an electrical impulse

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78
Q

Can transmission be multidirectional
Why

A

No - can only travel one way
Neurons have presynaptic terminals at one end and postsynaptic receptor sites at the other

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79
Q

What is unique about each neurotransmitter and receptor site

A

Each neurotransmitter has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a postsynaptic receptor site.

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80
Q

Do neurotransmitters have specialist functions
Give an example if necessary

A

Yes
Acetylcholine (ACh) found at each point a motor neuron meets a muscle, upon release it causes muscles to contract

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81
Q

Name the two effects a neurotransmitter can have on the neighbouring neuron

A

Excitatory or inhibitory

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82
Q

Define excitation
what does this mean about the likelihood of the impulse being passed on to

A

When a neurotransmitter increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neurone.
Increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will pass on the electrical impulse

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83
Q

Define inhibition
What does this mean about the likelihood of the impulse being passed on

A

When a neurotransmitter increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron.
Decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will pass on the electrical impulse

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84
Q

Give an example of an excitation neurotransmitter

A

Adrenalin

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85
Q

Give an example of an inhibition neurotransmitter

A

Serotonin

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86
Q

What two things is adrenalin

A

A hormone and a neurotransmitter

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87
Q

Whether a postsynaptic neuron fires is decided by the process of ______

A

Summation

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88
Q

What occurs in summation
Example with inhibitory net effect

A

The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed.
If the net effect on the postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire

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89
Q

How does neurotransmitters travel across the synapse

A

By diffusion

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90
Q

Who discovered that specific areas of the brain are associated with particular physical and psychological functions

A

Paul Broca and Karl Wernicke

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91
Q

When was it discovered that specific parts of the brain are associated with particular physical and psychological functions

A

19th century

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92
Q

What was generally supported before the investigations made by Broca and Wernicke on specific areas being associated with specific functions

A

Generally supported the holistic theory of the brain
That all parts of the brain were involved in the processing of thought and action

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93
Q

What did Broca and Wernicke argue for, for future research

A

Localisation of functions

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94
Q

Define localisation of function

A

The theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours, processes or activites

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95
Q

What does localisation of function suggest will occur if a certain area of the brain becomes damaged

A

The function associated with that area will also be affected

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96
Q

What is the ‘main part’ of the brain called

A

The cerebrum

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97
Q

Describe what the cerebrum is divided into

A

Two symmetrical halves called the left and right hemisphere

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98
Q

What is the term given to some of our physical and psychological functions being controlled or dominated by a particular hemisphere

A

Lateralisation.

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99
Q

What side of the body does the left hemisphere control as a general rule

A

Right-hand side of the body

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100
Q

What side of the body does the right hemisphere control as a general rule

A

The left-hand side of the body

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101
Q

Where is the cerebral cortex

A

The outer layer of both hemispheres

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102
Q

How many centres is the cerebral cortex of both hemispheres divided into

A

4

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103
Q

Name the 4 centres that the cerebral cortex of both hemispheres is subdivided into

A

The frontal lobe
The parietal lobe
The occipital lobe
The temporal lobe

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104
Q

What is a ‘lobe’

A

A part if an organ that is separate in some way from the rest of the

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105
Q

Define motor area

A

A region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement

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106
Q

Where is the motor area located

A

At the back of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres

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107
Q

What does the motor area control

A

Voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body

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108
Q

What would result from damage to the motor area

A

may result in a loss of control over fine movements

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109
Q

Define somatosensory area

A

An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch

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110
Q

Where is the somatosensory area located

A

At the front of both parietal lobes

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111
Q

What separates the motor and somatosensory areas

A

A ‘valley’ called the central sulcus

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112
Q

What does the somatosensory area do

A

Is where sensory information from the skin is represented.

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113
Q

What does the amount of somatosensory area devoted to a particular body part denote

A

Its sensitivity

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114
Q

How much of the somatosensory area is devoted to receptors for our face and hands

A

Over half

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115
Q

Define the visual area

A

A part of the occupational lobe that receives and processes visual information

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116
Q

Where is the visual area located

A

In the occupational lobe as the back of the brain

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117
Q

Where does each eye send information from and too

A

From the right visual field to the left visual cortex
From the left visual field to the right visual cortex

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118
Q

What would occur if there was damage to the left hemisphere in the visual area

A

Would produce blindness in par of the right visual field of both eyes

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119
Q

Define the auditory area

A

Located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech-based information

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120
Q

Where is the auditory area located

A

In the temporal lobe

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121
Q

What will damage to the auditory area cause
What will be the case with the more extensive damage

A

Hearing loss
The more extensive the damage the more extensive the hearing loss

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122
Q

What side of the brain is language restricted to

A

The left side

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123
Q

Who identified the area for speech production

A

Paul Broca (1880s)

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124
Q

What is the area for speech production in the brain called

A

Broca’s area

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125
Q

Define Broca’s area

A

An area of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere, responsible for speech production

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126
Q

Where is the Broca’s area located

A

In the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere

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127
Q

What is the Broca’s area function

A

Speech production

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128
Q

What does damage to the Broca area cause

A

Damage causes Broca’s aphasia

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129
Q

Describe what Broca’s aphasia is like
(General effect - parts of words that are difficult)

A

Characterised by slow speech, laborious and lacking in fluency.
Difficulty with prepositions and conjunctions.

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130
Q

Who was Broca’s most famous patient?
Why were they called this?

A

‘Tan’
That was the only word he could say.

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131
Q

What area of the brain was identified by Karl Wernicke

A

Wernicke’s area

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132
Q

Define Wernicke’s area

A

An area of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere, responsible for language comprehension.

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133
Q

Where is Wernicke’s area located

A

In the temporal lobe encircling the auditory cortex in the left hemisphere.

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134
Q

What is Wernicke’s area responsible for

A

Language comprehension.
No problem producing language but severe difficulty understanding it

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135
Q

What does damage to the Wernicke area cause

A

Wernicke’s aphasia

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136
Q

Describe the features of Wernicke’s aphasia

A

People with Wernicke’s aphasia will produce nonsense words as part of the content of their speech

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137
Q

What is the official name for ‘nonsense words’

A

Neologisms

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138
Q

What are the two strengths of localisation theory

A

Damage to areas of the brain has been linked to mental disorders
Evidence from brain scans that supports the idea that many everyday brain functions are localised

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139
Q

What is the last resort method for treating mental disorders

A

Neurosurgery

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140
Q

What does neurosurgery target

A

Specific areas of the brain which may be involved in the mental disorder

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141
Q

Give an example of a specific area of the brain being linked to a mental disorder
(OCD, what is this linkage called)

A

Cingulotomy involves isolating a region called the cingulate gyrus which has been implicated in OCD

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142
Q

Who completed research on OCD within damage to areas of the brain being linked to mental disorders

A

Darin Dougherty et al (2002)

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143
Q

Who was Dougherty’s subjects in his research on damage to areas of the brain being linked to OCD

A

44 people with OCD who had undergone a cingulotomy.

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144
Q

What was Dougherty’s findings when researching OCD and the impact of cingulotomy
(% successful and % partial)

A

After 32 weeks post-surgery about 30% had met the criteria for successful response to the surgery.
14% have a partial response.

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145
Q

What does the success of Cingulotomy on OCD suggest about behaviours associated with serious mental illnesses

A

Behaviours associated with serious mental disorders may be localised

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146
Q

Who completed research on the Broca’s and Wernicke’s area with brain scans

A

Steven Petersen et al (1988)

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147
Q

What did Petersen demonstrate using brain scans to research the Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas

A

Demonstrated how Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task
Broca’s area was active during a reading task

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148
Q

Who completed a review on long-term memory studies under brain scans supporting brain functions are localised

A

Buckner and Petersen(1996)

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149
Q

What did Buckner and Petersen reveal in their review of long-term memory studies under brain scans supporting brain functions being localised

A

Revealed that semantic and episodic memories reside in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.

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150
Q

What have objective methods for measuring brain activity provided (brain scans)

A

Sound scientific evidence that many brain functions are localised

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151
Q

Who’s research challenges the localisation theory

A

Karl Lashley (1950)

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152
Q

What was Lashleys method when making a counterpoint to brain scans supporting localised brain functions

A

He removed areas of the cortex (between 10-50%) in rates that were learning the route through a maze.

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153
Q

What was Lashley’s findings when challenging localisation theory

A

No area of the cortex was proven to be more important than any other area in terms of the rats’ ability to learn the route of the maze.

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154
Q

What did Lashley’s findings suggest about the location of learning and higher cognitive processes within the brain

A

Higher cognitive processes, such as learning, are not localised but distributed in a more holistic way in the brain.

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155
Q

What is one limitation for Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area

A

Language may not be localised to just these two areas

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156
Q

Who completed a recent review on language in Broca’s and Wernicke’s area

A

Anthony Dick and Pascale Tremblay (2016)

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157
Q

What did Dick and Tremblay find about modern researchers thoughts on the Broca’s and Wernicke’s area

A

Only 2% of modern researcher’s think that language in the brain is completely controlled by Broca’s and Wernicke’s area.

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158
Q

What have fMRI’s shown about languages location in the brain rather than just being located in the Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas

A

Language function is distributed far more holistically in the brain.
Language streams have been identifies across the cortex

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159
Q

Where have language streams now been shown to be within the brain

A

Identified across the cortex, including brain regions in the right hemisphere, as well as subcortical regions such as the thalamus.

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160
Q

How does new evidence on language location in the brain contradict localisation theory

A

Rather than being in a confined couple of key areas, language may be organised more holistically in the brain.

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161
Q

Who is the most famous case study of damage to the brain

A

Phineas Gage

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162
Q

What happened to Phineas Gage

A

Was working on a railroad.
Dropped his tampering iron onto the rock causing the explosive to ignite.
Explosion hurled the meter-length pole through his left cheek, passing behind his left eye, and exciting his skull from the top of his head.

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163
Q

What area of the brain was taken out by the pole in Phineas Gage

A

Mos of his left frontal lobe

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164
Q

What was the effect of the loss of the left frontal lobe in Phineas Gage

A

Changed from someone who was calm and reserved into a quick-tempered and rude person.

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165
Q

What did the change in Phineas gage suggest about the frontal lobe

A

The frontal lobe may be responsible for regulating mood

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166
Q

Draw and label the different areas of the brain

A
  • check on google
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167
Q

Define hemispheric lateralisation

A

The idea that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other.

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168
Q

Is language localised or lateralised

A

Both

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169
Q

Give an example of a function where the localised area appears in both hemispheres

A

The visual areas is in the left and right occipital lobe - located in the left hemisphere and right hemisphere respectively.

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170
Q

Where are the two main centres for language located
Can it therefore be referred to as lateralised

A

Two main centres are only in the left hemisphere for most people
Can say it is lateralised.

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171
Q

What can the right hemisphere only produce in terms of language
What does it also contribute to in language

A

Rudimentary words and phrases
Emotional context

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172
Q

What is the LH referred to in language

A

The analyser

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173
Q

What is the RH referred to in languages

A

The synthesiser

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174
Q

Name 3 areas of the brain that are not lateralised

A

Vision, motor and somatosensory areas appear in both hemispheres

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175
Q

What side of the body does the RH control in motor
What side of the body does the LH control in motor

A

Left
Right

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176
Q

What is the scientific term given to the RH controlling the left side of the body and the LH controlling the right side of the body in motor

A

Contralateral wiring
Can say the brain is cross-wired

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177
Q

What is the case in vision:
What is the left visual field in both eyes connected to
What is the right visual field in both eyes connected to

A

Left visual field in both eyes is connected to the right hemisphere
Right visual field in both eyes is connected to the left hemisphere

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178
Q

What two words can describe vision and the brain as a result of each visual field being controlled by the opposite hemisphere

A

Both contralateral and ipsilateral

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179
Q

What does vision being both contralateral and ipsilateral enable

A

The visual areas to compare the slight different perspective from each eye and aids depth perception.

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180
Q

What other feature has a similar arrangement to vision

A

Auditory input and auditory area

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181
Q

What does the auditory input and auditory area having a similar arrangement to vision enable

A

The disparity from the two inputs helps us locate the source of sound

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182
Q

What does a ‘split-brain’ operation involve
(Overall and mainly)

A

Severing the connections between the RH and LH
Mainly the corpus callosum

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183
Q

A split-brain operation is a surgical procedure used to reduce what

A

Epilepsy.

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184
Q

What happens in the brain during an epileptic seizure

A

The brain experience’s excessive electrical activity which travels from one hemisphere to the other.

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185
Q

What does split-brain research focus its studies on

A

Studies how the hemispheres function when they can’t communicate with each other

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186
Q

When did split-brain research begin

A

The 1960s

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187
Q

Define split-brain research

A

A series of studies involving people with epilepsy who had experienced a surgical separation of the hemispheres of their brain to reduce the severity of their epilepsy.
Enables researchers to test lateral functions of the brain in isolation

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188
Q

What does split-brain research allow researchers to test

A

Lateral functions of the brain in isolation

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189
Q

Who devised a system to study how two separated hemispheres deal with different functions

A

Roger Sperry (1968)

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190
Q

Who was Sperry’s subjects when studying how two separated hemispheres deal with functions

A

11 people who had a split-brain operation were studied.

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191
Q

What was Sperry’s procedure when investigating how two separated hemispheres deal with functions

A

A special set up was used in which an image could be projected to a participants right field of vision and the same or different image could be projected in the left field of vision.

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192
Q

How would connected hemispheres deal with two different images being shown in the RVF and LVF in Sperry’s experiment

A

The corpus callosum would share the information between hemispheres giving a complete picture of the visual world.

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193
Q

What would presenting the image to one hemisphere of a split-brain participant mean for the other in Sperry’s visual experiment

A

Information cannot be conveyed from that hemisphere to the other

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194
Q

What did Sperry find when an object was in the RVF in his visual experiment on split-brain subjects

A

When a picture of an object was shown to a participants RVF (linked to LH) the participants could describe what was seen.

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195
Q

What did Sperry find when an object was in the LVF in his visual experiment on split-brain subjects

A

Of the object was shown to the LVF (linked to RH) they said there was ‘nothing there’

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196
Q

Why could participants see objects in the RVF but not the LVF in Sperry’s visual experiment on split-brain

A

Messages from the RH cannot be relayed to the language centres in the LH.

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197
Q

Despite not being able to give verbal labels to objects projected in the LVF what two things could participants do in Sperry’s experiment on visual field and split-brain

A

They could select a matching objects out of sight using their left hand (linked to RH)
The left-hand was also able to select an object that was most closely associated with an object presented to the LVF.

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198
Q

What occurred in Sperry’s visual experiment on split-brain when a pinup picture was shown in the LVF

A

There was an emotional reaction but participants usually reported seeing nothing or just a flash of light.

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199
Q

What are the conclusions taken from Sperry’s experiment on vision in split-brain
(Overall and then specific functions of LH and RH)

A

Shows how certain functions are lateralised in the brain
Support the view that the LH is verbal and RH is ‘silent’ but emotional

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200
Q

What is one strength for hemispheric lateralisation

A

Research showing that even in connected brains the two hemispheres process information differently

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201
Q

Who used scans to identify which brain areas were active in visual processing tasks

A

Gereon Fink et al. (1996)

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202
Q

What was Fink’s method when trying to identify brain areas active during a visual processing task

A

Used PET scans and participant’s with connected brains
Participants were asked to attend to global elements of an image.
Participants were then asked to attend to finer details in the image

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203
Q

What did Fink discover about areas of the brain active when participants were asked to focus on the whole image and then focus on finer details

A

When participants were asked to attend to global elements of an image regions of the RH were much more active.
When asked to focus on the finer details the specific areas of the LH tended to dominate.

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204
Q

What was Fink’s conclusions when researching lateralisation in the connected brain

A

As far as visual processing is concerned, hemispheric lateralisation is a feature of the connected brain as well as the split brain

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205
Q

What is one limitation to the idea of hemispheric lateralisation

A

The idea that the LH as analyser and RH as synthesiser may be wrong

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206
Q

Who completed research into whether there is a ‘dominant’ side of the brain

A

Jared Nielsen et al (2013)

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207
Q

What was Neilsen’s method and subjects when researching whether there is a dominant side of the brain

A

Analysed brain scans from over 1000 subjects aged 7 to 29

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208
Q

What was Neilsen’s two findings when researching lateralisation and whether there is a dominant side of the brain

A

Found that people used certain hemispheres for certain tasks - evidence for lateralisation
There was no evidence of a dominant side - the notion of left- or right- brained people is wrong

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209
Q

What is one strength for Sperry’s split-brain research

A

There is more recent split-brain research

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210
Q

Who conducted more recent split-brain research

A

Michael Gazzaniga (Luck et al, 1989)

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211
Q

What did Gazzaniga show about split-brain participants compared to connected control participants on certain tasks

A

Split-brain participants actually performed better than connected control participants on certain tasks.

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212
Q

Give an example of a task in Gazzaniga’s research in which split-brain participants performed better than connected control participants

A

Split-brain participants were faster at identifying the odd one out in an array of similar objects.

213
Q

Who provides an explanation for Gazzaniga’s findings on split-brain participants performing better on certain tasks

A

Kingstone et al (1995)

214
Q

What is Kingstone’s explanation for why connected control participants performed worse then split-brain participants in Gazzaniga’s experiment

A

On the normal brain the LH’s better cognitive strategies are ‘watered down’ by the inferior RH

215
Q

Which of Sperry’s findings does Gazzaniga and Kingstone’s research and explanation support

A

Supports Sperry’s findings that the ‘left brain’ and ‘right brain’ are distinct

216
Q

What is one limitation of Sperry’s research

A

Causal relationships are hard to establish

217
Q

What was the issue with Sperry’s control group in his split-brain research
(What type of major variable is this)

A

None of the participants in the control group had epilepsy.
Major confounding variable

218
Q

What does a lack of epilepsy participants in the control group mean for Sperry’s findings and their cognitive abilities

A

Differences observed between the two groups may be the result of epilepsy rather than split brain.
Some of the unique features of the split-brain participant’s cognitive ability’s might have been due to their epilepsy.

219
Q

What is the counterpoint to differences between the control and split-brain group could be done to epilepsy in Sperry’s research

A

Fink’s research supports Sperry’s conclusions

220
Q

What 3 ethical measures were in place within Sperry’s split-brain research

A

Split-brain operations were not performed for the purpose of research - participants were not deliberately harmed.
All procedures were explained to the split-brain participants
Full informed consent was obtained

221
Q

What were the two ethical implications in Sperry’s split-brain research

A

Trauma of the operation might mean that participants did not fully understand the later implications for what they had agreed to.
The participants were subject to repeated testing over a lengthy period of time (years in some cases) and this may have been stressful over time.

222
Q

Define plasticity

A

Describes the brain’s tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning.
Generally involves the growth of new connections.

223
Q

During infancy what does the brain experience a rapid growth of

A

The number of synaptic connections

224
Q

Who stated the age the number stops increasing and peak number of synaptic connections

A

Gopnik et al (1999)

225
Q

At what age does the increase of synaptic connections peak

A

At 2-3 years old

226
Q

What is the peak number of synaptic connections per neuron

A

15,000 per neuron

227
Q

Are their more or less synaptic connections at 2-3 yrs or in adult hood
By how much

A

Twice as many at 2-3 yrs than in adulthood

228
Q

As we age what two things happen to synaptic connections

A

Rarely-used connections are deleted
Frequently-used connections are strengthened

229
Q

What is the name given to the process of deleting and strengthening different synaptic connections

A

Synaptic pruning

230
Q

Is the adult brain capable of change?
What enables it?

A

Yes
Synaptic pruning enables lifelong plasticity

231
Q

What enables life long plasticity

A

Synaptic pruning

232
Q

What occurs in synaptic pruning in adults

A

New neural connections are formed in response to new demands on the brain

233
Q

Who conducted research into plasticity on taxi drivers

A

Eleanor Maguire et al (2000)

234
Q

Who was Maguires subjects in research into plasticity
What did she compare them to

A

Studied the brains of london taxi drivers
Compared with a control group

235
Q

What things did Maguire find structurally in the brains of london taxi drivers

A

Significantly more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than in a matched control group

236
Q

What function does the grey matter in the posterior hippocampus have
(Maguire’s research on taxi drivers)

A

It is associated with the development of spatial and navigational skills in humans and other animals

237
Q

What test is part of the london taxi driver training course
What does this include

A

Test called ‘the knowledge’
Assesses their recall of the city streets and possible routes.

238
Q

What was the meaning behind Maguire’s findings on london taxi drivers in terms of plasticity

A

The learning experience alters the structure of the taxi drivers brains

239
Q

What was the positive correlation in Maguire’s findings (taxi drivers)

A

The longer the taxi drivers had been in the job, the more pronounces was the structural difference.

240
Q

Who conducted an experiment on synaptic pruning in medical students

A

Bogdan Draganski et al (2006)

241
Q

What was Draganski’s method in studying plasticity

A

Imaged the brains of medical students three months before and after their final exams

242
Q

What was Draganski’s findings on plasticity in medical students

A

Learning-induces changes were seen to have occurred in the posterior hippocampus and the parietal cortex.

243
Q

Define functional recovery

A

A form of plasticity following brain damage through trauma.
The brains ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area to other Un damaged areas.

244
Q

What type of plasticity is functional recovery an example of

A

Neural plasticity

245
Q

Hat have neuroscientists suggest happens to the rate at which functional recovery occurs over time

A

The process can occur quickly after trauma and then slow down after several weeks or months.

246
Q

What may an individual with brain damage need after functional recovery has slowed or stopped

A

Rehabilitative therapy to further their recovery

247
Q

How is the brain able to retire and reorganise itself after damage

A

By forming new synaptic connections close to the area of damage

248
Q

What are activated or unmasked to enable functioning to continue after brain damage

A

Secondary neural pathways

249
Q

What do secondary neural pathways do in an undamaged brain

A

They would not typically be used to carry out certain functions

250
Q

Who suggested that secondary neural pathways are activated to enable functioning to continue

A

Doidge (2007)

251
Q

Name the three structural changes in the brain that supports the process of activating secondary neural pathways

A

Axonal sprouting
Denervation supersensitivity
Recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side of the brain

252
Q

Describe axonal sprouting

A

The growth of new never endings which connect with other undamaged never cells to form new neuronal pathways

253
Q

Describe denervation supersensitivity

A

Occurs when axons of a similar function become aroused to a higher level to compensate for the ones that are lost.

254
Q

What can the negative be of denervation supersensitivity

A

The negative consequence of oversensitivity to messages such as pain

255
Q

Give an example of recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side of the brain

A

If Broca’s area was damaged on the left-side of the brain, the right side equivalent would carry out its function.

256
Q

What can happen to recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side of the brain after a period of time

A

Functionality can shift back to its original side of the brain

257
Q

What does recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side of the brain allow for specific tasks

A

They can still be performed

258
Q

What is one limitation of plasticity

A

It may have negative behavioural consequences

259
Q

Who conducted evidence into the brain’s adpatation to prolonged drug use

A

Medina et al. (2007)

260
Q

What did Medina’s research into the brains adaptation on prolonged drugs use show

A

Prolonged drug use leads to poorer cognitive function in later life, as well as increased risk of dementia.

261
Q

Who investigated phantom limb syndrome

A

Ramachandran and Hirstein (1998)

262
Q

What percentage of amputees have been known to develop phantom limb syndrome

A

60-80%

263
Q

What is phantom limb syndrome

A

The continued experience of sensations in the missing limb as if it were still there.

264
Q

What two words describe the sensations experienced in phantom limb syndrome

A

Unpleasant and painful

265
Q

What did Ramachandran and Hirstein think causes phantom limb syndrome within the brain

A

Cortical recognition in the somatosensory cortex

266
Q

What do the findings on prolonged drug use and the phantom limb syndrome suggest about the brains ability to adapt

A

The brains ability to adapt is not always beneficial

267
Q

What is one strength of brain plasticity

A

It may be a life-long ability

268
Q

In general what does plasticity reduce with

A

Age

269
Q

Who conducted research on golfers and brain plasticity being a life-long ability

A

Ladina Bezzola et al. (2012)

270
Q

What was Bezzola’s method for investigating brain plasticity in adults (golf)

A

Participants aged 40-60
40 hours of gold training for novice golfers
Compared fMRI scans between the golfers and a control group

271
Q

What was Bezzola’s findings when investigating brain plasticity in adults (golfers)
What do they suggest

A

There was reduced motor cortex activity in the novice golfers compared to a control group.
Suggests more efficient neural representations after training and therefore neural plasticity can continue throughout lifespan.

272
Q

What is one strength of functional recovery research

A

Real-world application

273
Q

Understanding the processes involved in plasticity has contributed to what field

A

The field of neurorehabilitation

274
Q

What therapy is used in stroke patients as an example of functional recoveries real-world application
(Name and describe)

A

Constraint-induced movement therapy.
Repeatedly practice using the affected part of their body.

275
Q

Why is research into functional recovery useful to medical professionals

A

Allows them to know when interventions need to be made

276
Q

What is one limitation of functional recovery

A

Level of education may influence recovery rates

277
Q

Who researched education and brain recovery

A

Eric Schneider et al (2014)

278
Q

What was Schneider’s general findings on education and brain recovery
what is education taken as an indicator of

A

The more time people with a brain injury had spent in education - taken as an indicator of their cognitive reserve - the greater their chances of a disability-free recovery

279
Q

What were the two statistical findings of Schneider’s findings on education and brain recovery

A

40% of those who achieved a disabled free recovery had more than 16 years education.
10% of those who achieved a disabled free recovery had less than 12 years education.

280
Q

What is implied for people with brain damage who have insufficient disabled free recovery

A

They are less likely to achieve full recovery

281
Q

What are techniques for investigating the brain often used for in general

A

Medical purposes in the diagnosis of illness.

282
Q

What is the purpose of scanning in psychology

A

Often to investigate localisation - determine which parts of the brain do what

283
Q

Name the four techniques used for localisation in psychology that you study in detail

A

Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Electroencephalogram
Event-related potentials
Post-mortem examinations

284
Q

Name the three scanning techniques that come up in psychology
Which two do you study in my detail

A

PET scans

Study in more detail:
fMRI
EEG

285
Q

Define Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

A method used to measure brain activity while a person is performing a task
Detects radio waves from changing magnetic fields.

286
Q

What does fMRI enable researchers to detect

A

Which regions of the brain are rich in oxygen and thus are active

287
Q

What two things does fMRI detect changes in

A

Blood oxygenation
Flow of blood

288
Q

Outline the stages of haemodyamic response - oxygen

A

An area of the brain is more active and consumes more oxygen
Blood flow is directed to the active area to meet this demand.

289
Q

What type of image does fMRI produce
What is the proper name

A

3D images
Activation maps

290
Q

What will an fMRI show us when a certain task is performed

A

Which parts of the brain are involved in this particular mental process.

291
Q

What type of waves does fMRI detect

A

Radio waves

292
Q

Where do radio waves come from in fMRI

A

Changing magnetic fields

293
Q

What is the main help received by fMRI

A

Helps understanding of localisation of function

294
Q

Define electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

A record of the tiny electrical impulses produced by the brain’s activity.
By measuring characteristic wave patterns, the EEG can help diagnose certain conditions of the brain.

295
Q

What does EEG measure

A

Characteristic wave patterns

296
Q

What is the main help provided by EEG

A

Diagnosing certain conditions of the brain

297
Q

What is fixed into an individuals scalp during EEG
How is this done

A

Electrodes
Using a skull cap

298
Q

What do scan recordings represent from an EEG
What generates patterns

A

The brainwave patterns that are generated from the action of thoughts of neuron’s.

299
Q

What type of patterns indicate neurological abnormalities in EEG

A

Unusual arrhythmic patterns

300
Q

Name 3 neurological abnormalities that EEG can highlight in the brain

A

Epilepsy, tumours and some sleeping disorders

301
Q

What is the issue with EEG in its raw form

A

It is crude and an overly general measure of brain activity

302
Q

What is contained within EEG data that may be of interest to cognitive neuroscientists
Associated with what 3 events

A

All the neural responses associated with specific sensory, cognitive and motor events.

303
Q

What type of statistical technique is used to filter our all extraneous brain activity from the original EEG

A

Statistical averaging technique

304
Q

When extraneous brain activity is filtered from an EEG what is left to study

A

Only responses that relate to the presentation of a specific stimulus or performance of a specific task.

305
Q

What is the name given to the desired brain activity waves the ones which are responses that relate to the presentation of a specific stimulus or performance of a specific task.

A

Event-related potentials (ERPs)

306
Q

Define event-related potentials (ERPs)

A

The electrophysiological response of the brain to a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data.

307
Q

What are ERPs in simple terms

A

Types of brainwave that are triggers by particular events

308
Q

How do you get ERPs

A

By conducting a statistical analysis of EEG data

309
Q

Define post-mortem examination

A

The brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during the person’s lifetime can be liked to structural abnormalities in the brain.

310
Q

What is the most likely case for those who individuals who’s brains are subject to post-mortem examinations
(What might they have, what two things will have been expressed)

A

Likely to be those who have a rare disorder and have experienced unusual deficits in cognitive processes or behaviour during their life time.

311
Q

Areas of damage within the brain are examined in post-mortem examinations to establish what

A

The likely cause of the affliction the person experienced.

312
Q

What may scientists use to ascertain the extent of the difference in post-mortem examination

A

A comparison with a neurotypical brain

313
Q

What is post-mortem examinations try to ultimately link together

A

Certain observed behaviours and structural abnormalities

314
Q

What is the strength for fMRI focused on safety

A

Does not rely on radiation like PET scans.
If administered correctly it is virtually risk-free, non-invasive and straightforward.

315
Q

What is the strength for fMRI focused on image production

A

Produces games that have a very high spatial resolution, depicting detail by the millimetre.
Provides a clear picture of how Brian activity is localised.

316
Q

What are the two overall positives of fMRI

A

Safe and produces a clear picture.

317
Q

What are the two overall limitations to fMRI

A

Expensive
Poor temporal resolution

318
Q

What is the limitation of fMRI focusing on price

A

Expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques

319
Q

What is the limitation of fMRI focusing on resolution

A

Poor temporal resolution.
Around a 5-second time-lag behind the image on screen and the initial firing of the neuronal activity.
May not truly represent moment-to-moment brain activity

320
Q

What two things has EEG been extremely useful in studying

A

The stages of sleep
The diagnosis of conditions such as epilepsy.

321
Q

Hat is one strength of EEG focusing on resolution

A

Extremely high temporal resolution.
Can accurately detect brain activity at a resolution of a single millisecond

322
Q

What is the one limitation of EEG

A

The generalised nature of the information received.
Not useful for pinpointing the exact source of neural activity.

323
Q

what does EEG not allow researchers to distinguish between

A

Activities originating in different but adjacent locations

324
Q

What two things are ERPs frequently used to measure
(2 examples for second thing measured)

A

Cognitive functions and deficits such as the maintenance of working memory.

325
Q

What are the two overall strengths of ERPs

A

Makes EEG more specific
Excellent temporal resolution

326
Q

What is the strength of ERPs focusing on specificity

A

Brings much more specificity to the measurements of neural processes than could ever be achieved with raw EEG data.

327
Q

What is the strength of ERPs focusing on resolution

A

As they are derived from EGG measurements they have excellent temporal resolution, especially when compared to fMRI

328
Q

What are the two general limitations of ERPs

A

Lack of standardisation
Extraneous material must be eliminated

329
Q

What is the limitation of ERPs focusing on standardisation
What does this make difficult

A

There is a lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between different research studies.
Makes it difficult to confirm findings.

330
Q

What is the limitation with ERPs focusing on collecting pure data

A

To establish our data in ERP studies, extraneous material must be completely eliminated.
Not always easy to achieve

331
Q

When was post-mortem evidence vital

A

In providing a foundation for early understanding of key processes in the brain.
Prior to the development of scanning techniques

332
Q

Who relied on post-mortem studies in establishing links between language, brain and behaviour

A

Paul Broca and Karl Wernicke

333
Q

Who’s brain was study’s in post-mortem examination to try and associate areas of damage with memory deficits

A

HM

334
Q

What are the 3 overall limitations with post-mortem studies

A

Causation
Observed damage linked to deficits
Informed consent

335
Q

What is the limitation with post-mortem examinations focusing on links made

A

Observed brain damage may not be linked to the deficits under review but to some other unrelated trauma or decay.

336
Q

What is the limitation with post-mortem examination focusing on informed consent

A

Ethical issues of consent from the individual before death
Participants may not be able to provide informed consent

337
Q

Explain an example focusing on the limitations of informed consent within post-mortem examinations

A

HM who lost the ability to form memories was not able to provide informed consent.
Post-mortem research has been conducted on his brain anyways.

338
Q

What type of organisms are subject to biological rhythms

A

All living organisms

339
Q

Define biological rhythms

A

Distinct patterns of changes in the body activity that conform to cyclical time periods.
Influences by internal body clocks as well as external changes to the environment.

340
Q

Give the biological name for the two things that govern biological rhythms

A

Endogenous pacemakers
Exogenous zeitgebers

341
Q

Define endogenous pacemakers

A

The body’s internal biological clocks

342
Q

Define exogenous zeitgebers

A

External changes in the environment

343
Q

What is the scientific term given to rhythms occuring many times in the day

A

Ultradian rhythms

344
Q

Give the scientific name for rhythms taking longer than a day to occur

A

Infradian rhythms

345
Q

What is the scientific name given to rhythms that take longer than infradian rhythms

A

Circannual rhythms

346
Q

What is the name given to rhythms that last for around 24 hours

A

Circadian rhythms

347
Q

Define circadian rhythms

A

Biological rhythms, subject to a 24-hour cycle, which regulate a number of body processes.

348
Q

Give the two examples of circadian rhythms studies in more detail

A

Sleep/wake cycle
Core body temperature

349
Q

Name the most important exogenous zeitgeber in the sleep/wake cycle

A

Daylight

350
Q

Is the sleep/wake cycle governed by endogenous pacemakers or exogenous zeitgebers

A

Governed by an endogenous pacemaker

351
Q

What is the name given to the endogenous pacemaker in the sleep/wake cycle

A

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

352
Q

Where is the SCN located

A

Above the optic chiasm

353
Q

What does the SCN provide information from and on

A

Provides information from the eye about ligth

354
Q

What can the exogenous zeitgebers do to the SCN

A

The exogenous zeitgebers (in this case light) can reset the SCN

355
Q

Which psychologists completed the cave-study

A

Michel siffre

356
Q

What is Siffre’s method to study the effects on his own biological rhythms

A

Spent several periods underground.
Deprived of exposure to natural light and sound, but with access to adequate food and drink.

357
Q

What occurred in Siffre’s study in the southern alps

A

Resurfaced in mid-September 1962 after two months in the caves.
He believed it to be mid-august

358
Q

Where and for how long did Siffre experiment for after the Southern alps

A

In a Texan cave for 6 months

359
Q

In what two places did Siffre experiment his own biological rhythms

A

Southern alps
Texan cave

360
Q

What was Siffre’s findings on his own biological rhythms in the caves
(General biological rhythms and sleep schedule)

A

His free-running biological rhythm settled down to one that was just beyond the usually 24 hrs (around 25 hrs).
He did continue to fall asleep and wake up on a regular schedule.

361
Q

Who conducted research similar to Siffre’s but in a WW2 bunker

A

Jurgen Aschoff and Rutger Wever (1976)

362
Q

What was Aschoff and Wever’s method when studying sleep/wake cycles

A

Placed a group of participants in a world war 2 bunker that was deprived of natural light for 4 weeks.

363
Q

What was Aschoff and Wever’s findings on the sleep/wake cycle in their WW2 bunker experiment
(Overall finding - what did the anomalies show)

A

All but one participant displayed a circadian rhythm between 24 and 25 hours.
The one participant’s sleep/wake cycle extended to 29 hours.

364
Q

What did the bunker and Siffre’s experiment suggest about the length of the natural sleep/wake cycle time

A

It may be slightly longer that 24hrs

365
Q

What did the bunker and Siffre’s experiment suggest about the effects of exogenous zeitgebers on the natural sleep/wake cycle
(Explain and Give an example of 24hr exogenous zeitgebers)

A

The natural sleep/wake cycle is entranced by exogenous zeitgebers associated with out 24hr day - such as the number of daylight hours, typical meal times)

366
Q

Who completed a study showing that we should not underestimate the influence of exogenous zeitgebers on our internal biological clock

A

Simon Folkard et al (1985)

367
Q

What was Folkard’s method when studying the influence of exogenous zeitgebers on our internal body clocks

(How many people, where, how long, what did they have to do, what changed, by how much)

A

12 people agreed to live in a dark cave for three weeks.
Had to go to bed when the clock said 11:45pm and wake up at 7:45am
Over the course of the study the researchers gradually speeded up the clock without participant knowledge.
Th 24hr day eventually lasted only 22 hrs

368
Q

What was Folkard’s findings in his changing of time in the day experiment?

A

Only one of the participants was able to comfortably adjust to the new regime

369
Q

What does Folkard’s findings in his changing of hours in the day experiement suggest about the effect of exogenous zeitgebers on circadian rhythms

A

Existence of a strong free-running circadian rhythm that cannot be easily overridden by exogenous zeitgebers

370
Q

What are the two strengths of research into circadian rhythms
(State scientific term for one)

A

It provides an understanding of the adverse consequences that occur when they are disrupted (desynchronisation)
It has been used to improve medical treatments.

371
Q

Research has shown that at what time do night workers engaged in shift work experience a period of reduced concentration
What is this called

A

6 in the morning
A circadian trough

372
Q

What is more likely to happen within a circadian trough at work

A

Mistakes and accidents

373
Q

Who found out that the circadian trough is most likely to occur at 6am

A

Boivin et al. 1996

374
Q

Who studied the relationship between shift work and poor health

A

Knutsson (2003)

375
Q

What did Knutsson find about shift workers and poor health

A

Shift workers are 3x more likely to develop heart disease than people who work a more typical work pattern.

376
Q

What do Boivin and Knutsson’s research show about research into the sleep/wake cycle entering the real-world

A

It may have real-world economic implications in terms of how best to manage worker productivity and health

377
Q

What is the counterpoint to studying circadian rhythms in shift work

A

Studies investigating the effects of shift work ten to use correlational methods.

378
Q

What does the use of correlational methods when investigating shift work mean for the results on desynchronisation

A

It is difficult to establish whether desynchronisation of the sleep/wake cycle is actually a cause of negative effects.

379
Q

Who conduced research on other factors that lead to negative impacts for night shift workers

A

Charlene Solomon (1993)

380
Q

What did Solomon conclude about other factors of negative impacts for night shift workers

A

High divorce rates in shift workers might be due to the strain of deprived sleep and other influences such a s missing out on important family events.

381
Q

What does Solomon’s research suggest about biological factors and shift work

A

It may not be biological factors that create the adverse consequences associated with shift work

382
Q

Name 3 basic body processes that circadian rhythms co-ordinate

A

Heart rate, digestion and hormone levels

383
Q

How do heart rate, digestion and hormone levels change throughout the day

A

They rise and fall

384
Q

What field has the rise and fall of circadian rhythms throughout the day led to

A

Chronotherapeutics

385
Q

What is chronotherapeutics

A

How medicinal treatment can be administered in a way that corresponds to a person’s biological rhythms.

386
Q

Give an example of a medicine needing to be taken at a specific time of the day due to a circadian rhythm - chronotherapeutics

A

Aspirin is most effective as a treatment for heart attacks if taken last thing at night.

387
Q

Explain why aspirin is most effective when taken late at night in terms of its corresponding circadian rhythm

A

Heart attacks are most likely to occur in the early morning

388
Q

How does aspirin reduce the chances of a heart attack - chronotherapeutics

A

Aspirin reduces blood platelet activity reducing the risk of blood clots in the coronary arteries and therefore heart attack risk.

389
Q

Who’s research supports the fact that aspirin should be taken last thing at night to since with platelet activity rhythm

A

Bonten et al (2015)

390
Q

What is one limitation of research into circadian rhythms

A

Generalisations are difficult to make

391
Q

Why were generalisations difficult to make from Aschoff & Wever and Siffre’s studies
What is the issue with this

A

They are based on very small samples of participants.
Sleep/wake cycles may vary widely from person to person

392
Q

Who researched the variety in difference of sleep/wake cycles from person to person

A

Charles Czeisler et al. (1999)

393
Q

What did Czeisler find about the variation in sleep/wake cycles from person to person

A

Individual differences in sleep/wake cycles vary from 13 to 65 hours.

394
Q

Who completed research on natural preferences for sleep/wake cycles

A

Jeanne Duffy et al (2001)

395
Q

What did Duffy reveal about natural preferences in sleep/wake cycles
(What were these 2 types called)

A

Some people have a natural preference for going to bed early and rising early - Larks
Others prefer the opposite - owls

396
Q

What did Siffre observe in a later study of his own sleep/wake cycle (1999)

A

His own sleep/wake cycle had slowed down since he was young.

397
Q

What does Czeisler, Duffy and ever Siffre’s later research suggest about generalisations in sleep/wake cycles

A

It is difficult to use research data to discuss anything more than averages, which may be meaningless.

398
Q

What term is used to describe the biological clock when there is no influence by exogenous zeitgebers

A

Free-running

399
Q

Define infradian rhythm

A

A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of less than one cycle in 24 hours.

400
Q

Name the two examples of an infradian rhythm studied in greater detail

A

The menstrual cycle
Seasonal affective disorder

401
Q

What is the menstrual cycle governed by
Why is this infradian

A

Governed by monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation
Less than one cycle in 24 hours

402
Q

The menstrual cycle refers to the time between what and what

A

Time between the first day of a woman’s period - when the womb lining is shed - to the day before her next period.

403
Q

How long does the menstrual cycle take on average
What is the range of length that is considered normal

A

28 days
24-35 days

404
Q

During the cycle what hormone rises in levels

A

Oestrogen

405
Q

What does oestrogen cause in the menstrual cycle

A

Causes the ovary to develop an egg and release it

406
Q

What is the production and releasing of an egg called in the menstrual cycle

A

Ovulation

407
Q

What hormone is produced after ovulation in the menstrual cycle

A

Progesterone

408
Q

What does progesterone do in the menstrual cycle

A

Helps the womb lining to grow thicker, reading it for pregnancy

409
Q

What occurs to the egg and lining if pregnancy does not occur in the menstrual cycle

A

The egg is absorbed into the body, the womb lining comes away and leaves the body in menstrual flow.

410
Q

Is the menstrual cycle a exogenous or endogenous system

A

Endogenous

411
Q

Evidence suggests that the menstrual cycle may be effected by what type of factors
Give an example of one

A

Exogenous
The cycles of other women

412
Q

Who conducted a study into how menstrual cycles may synchronise

A

Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998)

413
Q

Who was stern and mcclintock’s participants when studying how menstrual cycles may synchronise

A

Studied 29 women with a history of irregular periods.

414
Q

What were the samples of, from how many women and when were they gathered in Stern and McClintock’s study on how menstrual cycles may synchronise

A

Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycle.

415
Q

How were pheromone samples collected in stern and mcclintock’s study of menstrual cycle synchronisation

A

Cotton pads placed in armpits for at least 8 hours.

416
Q

What happened to the cotton pads that picked up pheromones in stern and mcclintock’s experiment on menstrual cycle synchronisation
(How were they treated, how were the pheromones transferred)

A

Pads were treated with alcohol and frozen
Pads were rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants

417
Q

What pads were used on day one and two in Stern and Mcclintock’s study of synchronisation of the menstrual cycle

A

On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women
On day two pad from the second day of the menstrual cycle and so on

418
Q

What was Stern and Mcclintock’s findings on the synchronisation of menstrual cycles through pheromones

A

68% of woman experienced changes to their cycle which brought them closer to the cycle of their pheromone donor.

419
Q

What is the name given to a the mental depressive disorder which has a seasonal pattern of onset

A

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

420
Q

Where is SAD described and diagnosed as a mental disorder

A

DSM-5

421
Q

What are the main symtoms of SAD (3)

A

Low mood
General lack of activity
Lack of interest in life

422
Q

What is SAD often referred to

A

Winter blues

423
Q

When is SAD triggered

A

During the winter months when the number of daylight hours become shorter

424
Q

What is the name given to the particular type of infradian rhythm that SAD is
Why does it fit into this other category

A

Circannual rhythm
It is subject to a yearly cycle

425
Q

What other rhythm can SAD be classed as and why

A

Circadian rhythm
SAD may be due to the disruption of the sleep/wake cycle and this can be attributed to prolonged periods of daily darkness during the winter.

426
Q

What hormone have psychologists hypothesised to be impacted in the cause of SAD

A

Melatonin

427
Q

What happens to the hormone melatonin during the night

A

The pineal gland secretes melatonin until dawn when there is an increase in light

428
Q

What impact does the winter months have on the secretion of melatonin

A

Lack of light in the morning means the secretion of melatonin continues for longer.

429
Q

What is the link between longer secretion of melatonin and depression
(What other hormone is at play)

A

Longer secretion of melatonin is thought to have a knock-on effect on the production of serotonin.
Serotonin is liked to the onset of depressive symptoms

430
Q

What is one of the most intensively researched ultradian rhythms

A

The stages of sleep or the sleep cycle

431
Q

How many stages of the sleep cycle are there

A

5

432
Q

How long does one sleep cycle last

A

Approximately 90 mins

433
Q

Why is the sleep cycle an ultradian rhythm

A

It repeats throughout the course of the night so occurs more than once in 24 hours

434
Q

What is each stage categories by?
What can this be monitored by?

A

Categorised by a different level of brainwave activity
EEG

435
Q

What is sleep like in stages 1 and 2 of the sleep cycle

A

Light sleep where a person might be easily woken

436
Q

What are the type of brain waves and what are they like in stage 1 of the sleep cycle

A

Alpha waves
High frequency and have a short amplitude

437
Q

What type of waves and what are the waves like in stage 2 of the sleep cycle

A

Alpha waves
They continue from stage 1 but there are occasional random changes in the pattern

438
Q

What are the occasional random changes in pattern called in stage 2 of the sleep cycle

A

Sleep spindles.

439
Q

What is sleep like in stages 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle

A

Deep sleep or slow wave sleep (SW)
Difficult to wake someone up

440
Q

What are the type of waves and what are they like in both stages 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle

A

Delta waves
Lower frequency and higher amplitude

441
Q

What does someone experience in stage 5 of the sleep cycle
What is this sleep called

A

REM sleep
The body is paralysed but brain activity is close to that of an awake brain.
Eyes occasionally move around - Rapid Eye Movement (REM)

442
Q

What is the type of wave produced in stage 5 / REM of the sleep cycle

A

Theta waves

443
Q

In what stage of the sleep cycle are dreams most often experienced
At what stages might they also occur

A

REM - stage 5

Might be in the deep sleep of stage 3 and 4

444
Q

What is one strength of menstrual synchrony research

A

It may be explained by natural selection

445
Q

Who might synchronised menstrual cycles have had evolutionary salute for

A

Distant ancestors

446
Q

Why might it have been advantageous for our distant ancestors to have had synchronised menstrual cycles in terms of survival

A

Advantageous to be fertile and become pregnant at the same time.
In a social group this would allow babies who lost their mothers to have breast milk, improving chances of survival.

447
Q

What does an evolutionary basis suggest about synchronised menstrual cycles

A

It is an adaptive strategy

448
Q

What is one limitation to the studies that focus on menstrual synchronisation

A

Their methodological shortcomings

449
Q

What are three other factors that could effect change to the menstrual cycle other than pheromones

A

Stress, changes in diet and exercise

450
Q

What might factors other than pheromones act as in an investigation on menstrual synchronisation

A

Confounding variables

451
Q

Name another study on menstrual synchronisation that has failed to replicate the findings of Stern and McClintock

A

Trevathan et al (1993)

452
Q

What is one strength of research into ultradian rhythms

A

It has improved understanding of age-related changes in sleep

453
Q

What reduction have sleep scientists observed with age in sleep cycles

A

Slow wave sleep.

454
Q

What hormone is mostly produces during SWS
What does this mean for older people

A

The growth hormone
SWS is reduced in older people

455
Q

Who stated that resulting sleep deficits in older people may results in issues of old age

A

Eve Van Cauter et al (2000)

456
Q

What is one issue in old age that could be a result of sleep deficit

A

Reduced alertness

457
Q

What may be used to increase SWS in older people or people with sleeping disorders

A

Medication to increase relaxation

458
Q

What does the findings on the reduction of SWS in older people suggest for the practicality of understanding ultradian rhythms

A

The knowledge of ultradian rhythms has a practical use

459
Q

What is one limitation of ultradian rhythms research

A

There is significant variation between people

460
Q

Who researched the differences in duration of each stage in the sleep cycle

A

Adrienne Tucker et al. (2007)

461
Q

What was Tuckers findings on variation in duration of each stage of the sleep cycle

A

Found large differences between participants in terms of the duration of each sleep stage.
Particularly stages 3 and 4.

462
Q

What does Tucker suggest determines the differences in duration of sleep stages

A

Likely to be biologically determined.

463
Q

What does large differences in duration of stages in the sleep cycle for different people mean when trying to describe sleep.

A

It is difficult to describe ‘normal sleep’ in any meaningful way.

464
Q

What is the most effective treatment for seasonal affective disorder

A

Light therapy

465
Q

How is light therapy done for SAD
How does light therapy work

A

A box which stimulates very strong light to rest the body’s internal clock.

466
Q

Who researched the effectiveness of light therapy on SAD

A

Sanassi (2014)

467
Q

What was the statistic Sanassi found about how effective light therapy is for SAD

A

Reduced effects of SAD in 80% of people

468
Q

Why is light therapy preferred for SAD over drug therapy

A

It is regarded as safe.

469
Q

What is one of the benefits of conducting studies of sleep in a lab setting

A

It controls extraneous variables

470
Q

What temporary variables can a researcher include when conducting sleep studies

A

Noise or temperature.

471
Q

What is the negative of conducting studies in a sleep lab setting

A

Participants are attached to complicated machinery, leading participants to sleep in a way that does not represent their ordinary sleep patterns.

472
Q

What makes us the suprachiasmatic nucleus and where is it located

A

A tiny bundle of nerve cells
Located in the hypothalamus in each hemisphere of the brain

473
Q

Is the SCN a primary endogenous pacemaker or exogenous reitgeber

A

Endogenous pacemaker

474
Q

What rhythm is the SCN influential in maintaining
Give an example of this type of rhythm

A

Circadian rhythms
Sleep/wake cycle.

475
Q

What is the optic chiasm

A

Nerve fibres connected to the eye cross in an area called the optic chiasm

476
Q

Nerve fibres crossing in the optic chiasm are coming from and to where

A

From the eye to the left and right visual area of the cerebral cortex

477
Q

Where does the SCN lie in comparison to the optic chiasm

A

Just above

478
Q

Where does the SCN receive information about light from

A

The optic chiasm

479
Q

Can we detect light when eyes are closed?
What does this allow the biological clock to do?

A

Yes
Adjunct to changing patterns of daylight whilst we are asleep

480
Q

Who studies the sleep/wake cycle in chipmunks with destroyed SNC connections in the brain

A

Patricia DeCoursey et al (2000)

481
Q

What was DeCoursey’s method when investigating the SNC

A

Destroyed the SNC connections in the brains of 30 chipmunks who were then returned to their natural habitat and observed for 80 days

482
Q

What were the two findings of DeCoursey’s study on chipmunks

A

The sleep/wake cycle of the chipmunks disappeared
By the end of the study a significant proportion of them had been killed by predators

483
Q

Explain why in DeCoursey’s study a significant proportion of the chipmunks has been killed by predators

A

Presumably because they were awake, active and vulnerable to attack when they should have been asleep

484
Q

Who bred mutant hamsters to study SNC

A

Martin Ralph et al. (1990)

485
Q

What was Ralph’s method when investigating SNC

A

Bred ‘mutant’ hamsters with a 20-hour sleep/wake cycle.
Transferred SCN cells from the foetal tissue of mutant hamsters into the brains of normal hamsters.

486
Q

What did Ralph find in his experiment on the SNC with mutant hamsters

A

The cycles of the normal hamsters with implanted SNC foetal tissue of mutant hamsters defaulted to 20 hours.

487
Q

Where does the SCN pass information on day length and light it receives to

A

Pineal gland

488
Q

What two pieces of information does the SNC pass to the pineal gland

A

Day length and light that it receives

489
Q

Where is the pineal gland located

A

Just behind the hypothalamus

490
Q

What type of mechanism is the reaction between the SNC and pineal gland
What cycle does it play a role in

A

Endogenous mechanism
Sleep/wake cycle

491
Q

What hormone does the pineal gland produce and when

A

During the night - increased melatonin production

492
Q

What does melatonin induce
When is it inhibited

A

Induces sleep and is inhibited during periods of wakefulness

493
Q

Define endogenous pacemakers

A

Internal body clocks that regulate many of our biological rhythms.

494
Q

Define exogenous zeitgebers

A

External factors that affect or entrain our biological rhythms.

495
Q

Define sleep/wake cycle

A

A daily cycle of biological activity based on a 24-hour period (circadian rhythm) that is influenced by regular variations in the environment.

496
Q

What is the process called when exogenous zeitgebers reset our biological clocks

A

Entrainment

497
Q

What happens to the biological clock that controls sleep/wake cycles in the absence of external cues

A

It is free-running and continues to ‘tick’ in a cyclical pattern

498
Q

What happens when environmental cues are reintroduced to the free-running cycle

A

The free-running cycle is ‘brought back into line’ by environmental cues.

499
Q

What does exogenous light do to the main endogenous pacemaker (SCN)

A

It can reset it

500
Q

What two things does light also have an indirect influence on

A

Key processes in the body that controls hormone secretion and blood circulation

501
Q

Who researched whether light can be detected on skin receptor sights

A

Scott Campbell and Patricia Murphy (1998)

502
Q

What was Campbell and Murphy’s method when investigating whether light can be detected by skin receptor sights

A

15 participants were woken at various times and a light pad was shone on the back of their knees

503
Q

What was observed in Campbell and Murphy’s research on whether skin receptor sites can detect light

A

There was a deviation in the participants usual sleep/wake cycle of up to three hours in some cases.

504
Q

What did Campbell and Murphy’s findings demonstrate about lights impacts on sleep/wake cycles

A

Light may be detected by skin receptor sites on the body
Light is a powerful exogenous zeitgeber that doesn’t need to rely on the eyes to exert its influence on the brain.

505
Q

What is the sleep/wake cycle like in newborn babies

A

Pretty much random

506
Q

At what age does the circadian rhythms begin

A

6 weeks

507
Q

At what age are rhythms entrained by the schedules imposed by parents

A

By about 16 weeks of age

508
Q

Give two examples of entrained schedules imposed by parents

A

Adult-determined mealtimes and bedtimes

509
Q

What are the two most effective way of entraining circadian rhythms and beating jet lag

A

Adapting to local times for eating and sleeping

510
Q

What are the two exogenous zeitgebers in the sleep/wake cycle studied in detail

A

Light and social cues

511
Q

What are the two endogenous mechanisms studied in detail for the sleep/wake cycle

A

SCN and light
Pineal gland and melatonin

512
Q

What is one limitation of SCN research

A

It may obscure other body clocks.

513
Q

What 3 other organs can peripheral oscillators be found in

A

Lungs, pancreas and skin

514
Q

What are the lungs, pancreas and skin also influenced by
What else do they do

A

The actions of the SCN
Act independently

515
Q

Who researched changes in the circadian rhythms in liver cells

A

Francesca Damiola et al (2000)

516
Q

What two things did Damiloa find in mice with feeding patterns, SCN and circadian rhythms in liver cells

A

Feeding patterns in mice could alter the circadian rhythm of cells in the liver by up to 12 hrs.
The rhythm of the SCB is unaffected

517
Q

What is one limitation for the study of endogenous pacemakers

A

They cannot be studied in isolation

518
Q

Why are animal studies for SCN justified

A

Very similar mechanisms at work across species.
If the SCN and pineal gland are present generalisations can be made about the human brain.

519
Q

Are there ethical issues in animal studies on SCN

A

Yes loads

520
Q

What are the limitations for exogenous zeitgeber’s

A

They do not have the same effect in all environments.
There is evidence that challenges their role

521
Q

How long do people who live within the arctic circle experience almost total darkness for

A

6 months

522
Q

What effect does 6 months of darkness have on the sleep/wake cycle for people in the arctic circle

A

They have similar sleep patters all-year round.

523
Q

What do people living in the arctic circle suggest about endogenous pacemakers

A

They can override environmental changes in light

524
Q

Who provides research that challenges the role of exogenous zeitgeber’s

A

Laughton Miles et al (1977)

525
Q

Who did Miles study / what was the method when challenging the role of exogenous zeitgebers

A

Recounted the study of a young man, blind from birth, who has an abnormal circadian rhythm of 24.9 hours
He was introduced to social cues like regular meal times.

526
Q

What was the findings when Miles recounted the study of the blind from birth man

A

Despite exposure to social cues, such as regular mealtimes, his sleep/wake cycle could not be adjusted.

527
Q

What did Miles findings on the blind man tell us about social cues

A

Social cues alone are not effective in resetting the biological rhythm

528
Q

Who’s studies suggested that exogenous factors may be more responsible for the changes in sleep patters amongst old people

A

Bernadette Hood et al (2004)

529
Q

What did Hood find when investigating exogenous reitgeber effects on sleep/wake cycles in old people

A

Management of insomnia was improved if elderly people were generally more active and had more exposure to natural light.

PAPER 2 - PSYCHOLOGY (5 decks)

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