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PAPER 2 - PSYCHOLOGY > APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY > Flashcards

APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY Flashcards

1
Q

Who opened the first ever lab entirely dedicated to psychology

A

Wilhelm Wundt

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2
Q

What year and where was the first ever lab entirely dedicated to psychology opened

A

1879
Leipzig, Germany

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3
Q

What significant beginning is market by Wundt’s work

A

The beginning of scientific psychology

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4
Q

What roots does scientific psychology separate it from

A

The philosophical roots

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5
Q

What type of attempt did Wundt first use to study the mind under controlled conditions

A

The systematic attempt

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6
Q

What was wundts aim

A

To analyse the nature of human consciousness.

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7
Q

What is wundts pioneering method called

A

Introspection

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8
Q

Define introspection

A

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

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9
Q

What was wundts main objectives with standardised procedures

A

Try and develop theories about mental processes, such as language and perception.

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10
Q

What did Wundt and his coworkers record when developing theories about mental processes

A

Recorded individuals experiences of various stimuli they were presented with, such as different objects or sounds.

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11
Q

What did Wundt and coworkers do with the results when investigating theories about mental processes

A

Divided their observations into three categories - thoughts, images and sensations

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12
Q

What is the name given to the way in which Wundt was isolating the structure of consciousness

A

Structuralism

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13
Q

How was Wundt’s work structuralism (talk about stimuli, instructions and order)

A

The stimuli Wundt and his co-workers experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were used for all participants.

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14
Q

What is one strength of Wundt’s work

A

Some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled (scientific)

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15
Q

How did Wundt ensure that possible extraneous variables were not a factor

A

All introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab

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16
Q

What was standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way in Wundt’s experiment

A

Procedures and instructions

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17
Q

What can Wundt’s research be considered as a forerunner for

A

Later scientific approaches in psychology

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18
Q

What is one limitation to aspects of Wundt’s research

A

Other aspects would be considered unscientific today

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19
Q

What was Wundt’s method for collecting data
Is this subjective or objective

A

Subjective as it relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes.

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20
Q

Why is self-reporting subjective

A

May have personal biases
Participants may have hidden some of their thoughts

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21
Q

What is difficult to establish from subjective data

A

‘Laws of behaviour’

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22
Q

What approach came around in the 1900s

A

Behaviourist

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23
Q

Which behaviourist questioned the value of introspection

A

John B. Watson

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24
Q

What did Watson and later B.F. Skinner propose about truely scientific psychology

A

It should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured

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25
Q

What approach dominated psychology for 50 years after 1900s

A

Behaviourist approach

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26
Q

What in the 1950s caused a new approach to emerge

A

The digital revolution

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27
Q

What approach emerged due to the digital revolution in the 1950s

A

The cognitive approach

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28
Q

What did cognitive psychologists compare the mind to

A

A computer

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29
Q

What do cognitive psychologists do to test their predictions about memory and attention

A

Complete experiement

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30
Q

What did the cognitive approach ensure about the study of the mind

A

It was a legitimate and highly scientific aspect of the discipline

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31
Q

What approach arrived in the 1980s

A

The biological approach

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32
Q

What do researchers in the biological approach area take advantage of to investigate physiological processes.

A

Advances in technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen

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33
Q

Give two examples of how technology is used in the biological approach to investigate physiological processes as they happen

A

Scanning techniques - fMRI and EEG
Study live activity in the brain

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34
Q

What newer method has also allowed us to better understand the relationship between genes and behaviour

A

Genetic testing.

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35
Q

What is one strength of modern psychology

A

Research in modern can claim to be scientific

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36
Q

What can the learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way

A

The use of scientific methods - e.g. lab studies

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37
Q

What is one limitation within modern psychology

A

Not all approaches use objective methods

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38
Q

Which two approaches reject the scientific approach

A

The humanistic approach
The psychodynamic approach

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39
Q

What does the humanistic approach prefer to focus on rather than scientific approach

A

Focuses on the individual experiences and subjective experience

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40
Q

What does the psychodynamic approach prefer to focus on rather than scientific approach
What is the link between this method and representative samples.

A

Makes use of the case study method which does not use representative samples.

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41
Q

What might humans respond to in research that is damaging to an experiement

A

Respond to demand characteristics

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42
Q

What is the behaviourist approach - definition

A

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

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43
Q

Name in chronological order the established psychological approaches (7)

A

Psychodynamic approach
Behaviourist approach
Humanistic approach
Cognitive approach
Social learning theory
Biological approach
Cognitive neuroscience

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44
Q

What is the focus of study in the behaviourist approach
What is seen as irrelevant

A

Only concerned with behaviour that can be observed and measured.
Not concerned with investigating mental processes of the mind.

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45
Q

Why did behaviourists such as John B. Watson reject introspection

A

It involved too many concepts that were vague and difficult to measure.

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46
Q

What method do behaviourists rely on to maintain more control and objectivity within research

A

Lab studies

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47
Q

How would behaviourists describe a baby’s mind

A

As a blank slate which is written on by experience

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48
Q

What did behaviourists suggest post Darwin

A

The basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species

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49
Q

Due to beliefs in the behaviourist approach post Darwin, what can replace humans as experiemental subjects

A

Animals

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50
Q

What are the two important forms of learning identified by behaviourists

A

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning

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51
Q

Define classical conditioning

A

Learning by association.

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52
Q

Describe the process of classical conditioning

A

Two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral stimulus (NS)
The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone.

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53
Q

Who first demonstrated classical conditioning

A

Ivan Pavlov (1927)

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54
Q

What did Pavlov show could happen in dogs with classical conditioning

A

Dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly present at the same time as they were given food.

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55
Q

Describe Pavlov’s findings in terms of stimuli and response

A

Dogs learned to associate the bell (neutral stimulus) with the food (an unconditioned stimulus) and would produce the salivation response (conditioned response) ever time they heard the sound.

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56
Q

Define operant conditioning

A

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

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57
Q

What are the two possible consequences of behaviour in operant conditioning

A

Reinforcement or punishment

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58
Q

Define reinforcement

A

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated

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59
Q

What are the two types of reinforcement

A

Positive and negative

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60
Q

Who suggested operant conditioning

A

B.F. Skinner (1953)

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61
Q

Operant conditioning behaviour is shaped by its ___

A

Consequences

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62
Q

Outline the process of positive reinforcement
Example

A

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
Sticker given to student by teacher for answering a question in class

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63
Q

Outline negative reinforcement

A

Occurs when an animal or human avoids something unpleasant and the outcome is a positive experience.

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64
Q

Give an example of negative reinforcement

A

A student hands in an essay to not be told off.
Avoiding something unpleasant (the telling off) is the negative reinforcement.

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65
Q

Outline punishment
Example

A

An unpleasant consequence of behaviour.
Being shouted at by a teacher for talking during a lesson.

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66
Q

Finding a way to avoid punishment is what type of reinforcement

A

Negative reinforcement

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67
Q

What does punishment do to the likelihood of an action being repeated

A

Decreases the likelihood of

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68
Q

What are two strengths of the behaviourist approach

A

It is base on well-controlled research
The principles of conditioning have been applied to real-word behaviours and problems.

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69
Q

What measurement and setting does behaviourists focus on

A

Measurement of observable behaviour
Highly controlled lab settings

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70
Q

Breaking down behaviour into ___ allows all other possible ___ variables to be removed.

A

Stimulus-response units
Extraneous

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71
Q

What is the counterpoint to the behaviourist approach being based on well-controlled research

A

Behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process

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72
Q

What is the important influence on learning that behaviourists may have ignored

A

Human thought

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73
Q

What other approaches have draw attention to human thought and mental processes involved in learning

A

Social learning theory and the cognitive approach

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74
Q

Give an example of where conditioning has been applied to real-world problems

A

Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions, such as prisons and psychiatric wards

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75
Q

What is one limitation of the behaviourist approach

A

It sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences

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76
Q

What did skinner suggest about past conditioning experiences

A

Everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history.
Our past conditioning history determines the outcome of our decisions.

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77
Q

What does skinners suggestions on reinforcement history ignore the influence of

A

Free will

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78
Q

Who proposed the social learning theory

A

Albert Bandura

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79
Q

What is the social learning theory

A

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

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80
Q

What are the two types of reinforcement in the learning theory

A

Direct and indirect

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81
Q

What did Bandura propose about the way in which we learn

A

Learn through the observation and imitation of others

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82
Q

What is imitation

A

Copying the behaviour of others

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83
Q

Outline vicarious reinforcement
What is it a key factor of

A

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
Imitation.

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84
Q

What is social learning theory often described as the bridge between

A

Bridge between behaviourist learning theory and the cognitive approach

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85
Q

Why is social learning theory described as the bridge between behaviourist learning theory and the cognitive approach

A

Because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.

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86
Q

What processes were identified by Bandura

A

Mediational processes

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87
Q

Define mediational processes

A

Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

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88
Q

Name the 4 mediational processes

A

Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation

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89
Q

Outline attention as a mediational process

A

The extent to which we notice certain behaviours

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90
Q

Outline retention as a mediational process

A

How well the behaviour is remembered

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91
Q

Outline motor reproduction as a mediational process

A

The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

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92
Q

Outline motivation as a mediational process

A

The will to perform the behaviour.

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93
Q

What is motivation in mediational processes often determined by

A

Whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

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94
Q

Which two mediational processes relate to learning of behaviour

A

Attention and retention

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95
Q

What two mediational processes relate to the performance of behaviour

A

Motor reproduction and motivation

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96
Q

Unlike in traditional behaviourism what might not be the case with learning and performance of behaviour

A

Need not occur together

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97
Q

Can observed behaviours be stored

A

Yes and reproduced at a later time

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98
Q

What is identification

A

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because they possess desirable characteristics.

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99
Q

What is the person identified with called

A

The role model

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100
Q

What is the process of imitating a role model called

A

Modelling

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101
Q

Define modelling from an observers perspective

A

From an observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model.

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102
Q

Define modelling from a role models perspective

A

From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may then be imitated by an observer.

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103
Q

How does a person become a role model / what defines a role model

A

If they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status.

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104
Q

Does a role model have to be physically present in the environment

A

No

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105
Q

What does role models not having to be physically present in the environment have important implications for

A

The influence of the media on behaviour.

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106
Q

What are two strengths of the Social learning theory

A

It recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning
Social learning theory principles have been applied to a range of real-world behaviours

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107
Q

Can classical or operant conditioning offer an account of learning on their own

A

Not an adequate one

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108
Q

What was Bandura’s observations on learning being stored and not always occurring due to classical or operant conditioning (quote)

A

‘From observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide to action’

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109
Q

What is the counterpoint to Social Learning theory recognising the importance of cognitive factors

A

It has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning

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110
Q

What did Bandura claim about biological factors, learning potential and what determines learning

A

Claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential but thought learning itself was determined by the environment.

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111
Q

What does recent research show us about biological factors and observational learning

A

Observational learning may be the result of mirror neurones in the brain which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people

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112
Q

What differences in behaviour and norms can the social learning theory be able to explain

A

Cultural differences in behaviour.
Can explain how social/cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies

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113
Q

Define the cognitive approach

A

An approach focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour

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114
Q

Give three examples of mental processes that can affect behaviour

A

Thoughts, perceptions and attention

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115
Q

What does the cognitive approach argue about the study of internal mental processes

A

That they can, and should be studied scientifically

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116
Q

Define internal mental processes

A

‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.

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117
Q

What ares of human behaviour previously neglected by other approaches have been studied by the cognitive approach

A

Memory, perception and thinking

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118
Q

How do cognitive psychologists study memory, perception and thinking
Why

A

They are studied indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside peoples minds on the basis of behaviour.
The processes are private and cannot be observed

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119
Q

Define inference

A

The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

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120
Q

What are a persons beliefs or expectations often referred to as

A

Schema

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121
Q

Define schema

A

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing.

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122
Q

What are schema developed from

A

Experience

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123
Q

Give the example of schema and chairs

A

You have a schema for a chair - something with legs that you can sit on.
Thats a package of information learned through experience that helps you respond to the object appropriately

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124
Q

What is the type and what is the schema or behaviours like in babies

A

Born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping.

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125
Q

As we get older what happens to our schema

A

It becomes more detailed and sophisticated

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126
Q

What do schema enable us to do with information

A

Allows us to process a lot of information quickly.
Prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.

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127
Q

What might schema also distort
What does this lead to

A

Out interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors

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128
Q

What do cognitive psychologists use to help them understand internal mental processes (2)

A

Theoretical and computer models

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129
Q

Are theoretical or computer models abstract or concrete

A

Theoretical models - abstract
Computer models - concrete things

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130
Q

What is one important theoretical cognitive model

A

The information processing approach

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131
Q

Hat does the information processing approach suggest

A

Information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages.

132
Q

What are the stages in the information processing model - multi-store model.

A

Input, storage and retreival

133
Q

What is the information processing model based on

A

Based on the way that computers function

134
Q

Computer models of the mind have proved useful in the development of what

A

Artificial intelligence

135
Q

Define cognitive neuroscience

A

The scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.

136
Q

What technique is used to place specific cognitive functions

A

Brain mapping

137
Q

Brain mapping be seen in research as early as

A

The 1860s

138
Q

What did Paul Broca identify in brain mapping in the 1860s

A

He identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (became known as Broca’s Area) could permanently impair speech production.

139
Q

What brain imaging techniques have allowed scientists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes

A

fMRI and PET scans

140
Q

What have fMRI and PET scans allowed scientists to do with mental processes

A

Scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes

141
Q

Who’s research was able to show how different types of long-term memory may be located

A

Buckner and Petersen (1996)

142
Q

What did Buckner and Petersen’s research on location of types of long-term memory require the use of

A

Episodic and semantic memory

143
Q

What did Buckner and Petersen show about location of long-term memory using episodic and semantic memory

A

Different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex

144
Q

What technique has also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders

A

Scanning techniques

145
Q

Give an example of an area of the brain linked to a mental disorder (OCD)

A

Link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD.
Appears to play a role in the processing of unpleasant emotions.

146
Q

How has the focus of cognitive neuroscience changed in resent years
What has it recently included

A

Expanded recently to include the use of computer-generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain.

147
Q

What mind-mapping technique has been developed as a result of computer-generated models that are designed to read the brain

A

Brain fingerprinting

148
Q

What are two strengths of the cognitive approach

A

It uses objective scientific methods
It has practical application

149
Q

What two words described the type of methods cognitive scientists use to infer cognitive processes at work

A

Employ highly controlled and rigorous methods

150
Q

What is the location of research in the cognitive approach
What does this mean for the data

A

Lab studies
Reliable and objective data

151
Q

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has allowed what two fields to come together
What does this do to the scientific basis of study

A

Biology and cognitive psychology
Enhances scientific basis of study

152
Q

What is the counterpoint to the cognitive approach using objective scientific methods

A

Cognitive psychology relies on the inference mental process, rather than direct observation of behaviour

153
Q

What can cognitive approaches suffer from as a result of the reliance on the inference of mental processes

A

Suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature.

154
Q

What are research studies of mental processes often carried out by
What is the negative to this

A

Artificial stimuli
It may not represent everyday experience

155
Q

Overall from the counterpoint to the cognitive approach using objective scientific methods what may cognitive processes lack

A

External validity

156
Q

Despite the cognitive approaches aid in AI what and OCD what are two other fields it has helped in and have a practical application

A

Treatment of depression
Improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony

157
Q

What is one limitation to the cognitive approach

A

It is based on machine reductionism

158
Q

what has the computer analogy / machine reductionism been criticises for in the cognitive approach

A

Machine reductionism ignored the influence of human emotion and motivation and how this may affect our ability to process information

159
Q

Give an example of machine reductionism causing flaws in real world application - cognitive approach

A

Human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses.

160
Q

What type of determinism is the cognitive approach founded on

A

Soft determinism

161
Q

Define the biological approach

A

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.

162
Q

What does the biological approach suggest about everything psychological
What does this mean we must look at first

A

At first it is biological so to fully understand human behaviour we must look at biological structures and processes within the body.

163
Q

Define biological structure

A

An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

164
Q

Where does the mind live for a biological perspective
What does this mean about thoughts, feelings and behaviour

A

The mind lives in the brain
Thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis.

165
Q

Define neurochemistry

A

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate biological and psychological functioning

166
Q

What two things rely heavily on chemical transmissions in the brain

A

Thought and behaviour

167
Q

What carriers out chemical transmissions in the brain

A

Neurotransmitters

168
Q

What has an imbalance of neurochemical in the brain been implicated as a possible cause of

A

Mental disorder

169
Q

Give an example with schizophrenia being cause by an imbalance of neurochemical in the brain

A

Schizophrenia is thought to be caused by the overproduction of dopamine

170
Q

Define the term genes

A

Make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features.

171
Q

How are genes transmitted

A

From parent to offspring

172
Q

What studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis

A

Twin studies

173
Q

How are results from twin studies analysed

A

Analysing concordance rates

174
Q

What are concordance rates in twin studies

A

The extent to which twins share the same characteristics

175
Q

If a characteristic is genetic what would we expect in twin studies

A

We would expect all identical twins to be concordant

176
Q

What is the scientific name for identical twins

A

Monozygotic

177
Q

What is the scientific name for non-identical twins

A

Dizygotic

178
Q

Define the term genotype

A

The particular set of genes that a person possesses

179
Q

Define the term phenotype

A

The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment

180
Q

Phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through what 3 things

A

Physical, biological and psychological characteristics

181
Q

What can be the case for genes being expressed in identical twins

A

Despite having the same genes the phenotype or way they are expressed can be different in identical twins

182
Q

What do biological psychologists accept about much of human behaviour depending on
What debate is this

A

An interaction between inherited factors and the environment
Nature-nurture

183
Q

Define evolution

A

The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations

184
Q

Who proposed the theory of natural selection

A

Charles Darwin

185
Q

In what century was the theory of natural selection proposed

A

The 19th century

186
Q

What is the main principle of the theory of natural selection

A

Any genetically determined behaviour enhances an individuals survival (and reproduction) will continue in future generations.

187
Q

What happens in terms of the traits and gene pool if an individual with advantageous traits survives but does not reproduce

A

The traits do not remain in the gene pool for successive generations

188
Q

What are two strengths of the biological approach

A

It has real-world application
It uses scientific method of investigation

189
Q

Increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of what treatment
What is this treatment for

A

Psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders

190
Q

Give an example of how the biological approach has promoted a treatment via a use of drugs
(Reference a neurochemical)

A

Has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase levels of serotonin at synapses in the brain

191
Q

What is a counterpoint to the real-world application of the biological approach to drug therapy

A

Antidepressant drugs do not work for everyone

192
Q

Who completed a study on the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs for everyone - biological approach

A

Andrea Cipriani et al (2018)

193
Q

What did Cipriani compare in their research for the effectiveness of drug therapy on all - biological approach

A

Compared 21 antidepressant drugs

194
Q

What did Cipriani find about the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs for everyone - biological approach

A

Found wide variations in thier effectiveness.
Although most of the drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials, the researchers concluded that the effects of antidepressants in general were ‘mainly modest’

195
Q

What precise and highly objective methods are used to investigate genetic and biological basis of behaviour in the biological approach

A

Scanning techniques
fMRIs and EEGs

196
Q

What do enhances in technology specifically scanning techniques allow for reliability of research in the biological approach

A

Possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias

197
Q

What is one limitation of the biological approach

A

It is determinist

198
Q

What does the biological approach say that human behaviour is governed by rather than free will

A

Governed by internal, genetic causes

199
Q

What is evidence against behaviour being governed by genetic causes and the biological approach being determinist

A

Not even identical twins who share the same genes look and think teh same.
An individuals genotype expression is heavily based on the enivronment

200
Q

Explain when a purely genetic explanation for behaviour like the biological approach becomes problematic

A

Crime.
Could a violent crime be excused due to behaviour being controlled by a ‘crime gene’

201
Q

Genotype + ____ = phenotype

A

Environment

202
Q

Define the psychodynamic approach

A

A perspective that described the different forces (dynamics) , most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

203
Q

Who suggested that our conscious mind is just the ‘tip of the iceberg’

A

Sigmund Freud

204
Q

Define the unconscious

A

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour

205
Q

How much of our mind is made up of the unconscious

A

Most of it

206
Q

What does the unconscious mind store and what does it have a significant influence on

A

Stores biological drives and instincts
Significant influence on behaviour and personality

207
Q

What type of memories does the unconscious also contain

A

Threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, locked away and forgotten.

208
Q

What can be accessed through dreams or ‘slips of the tongue’

A

Threatening and disturbing memories

209
Q

What did Freud call the access of bad memories through dreams and ‘slips of tongue’

A

Parapraxes

210
Q

What is just under our conscious mind

A

The preconscious

211
Q

What is held in the preconscious and can we access it

A

Contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired

212
Q

What word does Freud use to describe personality

A

Tripartite

213
Q

Name the three parts of personality stated by Freud

A

Id, ego and superego

214
Q

Define Id

A

Entirely unconscious, made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification

215
Q

What principle does Id operate on

A

Pleasure principle

216
Q

Which of Freud three parts of personality is present at birth

A

Id

217
Q

Define ego

A

The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and superego

218
Q

What principle does the ego work on

A

The reality principle

219
Q

At what age does ego develop

A

Around the age of two

220
Q

What does ego do to balance the demands of Id and superego

A

Employs a number of defense mechanisms

221
Q

Define defence mechanisms

A

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego

222
Q

Define superego

A

The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self - how we ought to be.

223
Q

At what age is the superego developed

A

Around the age of 5

224
Q

Superego is developed at the end of what stage

A

The phallic stage

225
Q

What principle is the superego based off

A

The morality principle

226
Q

What is the superego our sense of

A

Right and wrong

227
Q

What does the superego do in relation to same sex parent and ego

A

Represents the moral standards of the child’s same-gender parent and punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt.

228
Q

Define psychosexual stages

A

Five developmental stages that all children pass through.

229
Q

What process occurs at each psychosexual stage
What is the outcome of

A

There is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.

230
Q

What must a child do to successfully progress onto the next psychosexual stage

A

The child must resolve a conflict

231
Q

If a psychosexual conflict is not resolved what occurs
Impact on adult life

A

Fixation and the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carriers certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through to adult life.

232
Q

Name the 5 psychosexual stages in order

A

Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital

233
Q

At what age does the oral psychosexual stage occur at

A

0-1 years

234
Q

Describe the oral psychosexual stage

A

Focus of pleasure is the mouth, mother’s breast can be the object of desire

235
Q

What is the consequence of unresolved conflict for the oral psychosexual stage

A

Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical

236
Q

At what ages does the anal psychosexual stage occur

A

1-3 years

237
Q

Describe the anal psychosexual stage

A

Focus of pleasure in the anus.
Child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces

238
Q

Name and describe the two consequences of unresolved conflict for the anal psychosexual stage

A

Anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive
Anal expulsive - thoughtful, messy

239
Q

At what ages does the phallic psychosexual stage occur

A

3-6 years

240
Q

Describe the phallic stage of psychosexual stages

A

Focus of pleasure is the genital area

241
Q

What is the consequence of unresolved conflict for the phallic psychosexual stage

A

Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless

242
Q

What is the description for the latency psychosexual stage

A

Earlier conflicts are repressed

243
Q

What is the consequence of unresolved conflict for the latency psychosexual phase

A

There is none

244
Q

Describe the genital psychosexual stage

A

Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty

245
Q

when does the genital psychosexual stage start

A

Alongside puberty

246
Q

What is the consequence of unresolved conflict for the genital psychosexual stage

A

Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

247
Q

Are defence mechanisms conscious or unconscious

A

Unconscious

248
Q

What do defence mechanisms ensure the ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by

A

Temporary threats or traumas

249
Q

What do defence mechanisms often involve

A

Some distortion of reality

250
Q

Are defence mechanisms viable as a long-term solution

A

In the log-term they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable

251
Q

What are two strengths of the psychodynamic approach

A

It introduces the idea of psychotherapy as opposed to physical treatments
Ability to explain human behaviour

252
Q

Psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat mental disorders in what way
Rather than what

A

Psychologically rather than physically

253
Q

What did new psychotherapy employ techniques for
Give an example

A

Techniques designed to access the unconscious
Dream analysis

254
Q

How does psychoanalysis claim to help clients

A

By bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with

255
Q

Psychoanalysis was the forerunner to what
Give example

A

Many modern-day ‘talking therapies’
Counselling

256
Q

What is the counterpoint to psychotherapy

A

It is regarded as inappropriate and even harmful for people experiencing more serious mental disorders like schizophrenia

257
Q

Why is psychoanalysis not going to help someone with schizophrenia

A

Paranoia and delusional thinking mean that those with the disorder have lost their grip on reality and cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required for psychoanalysis.

258
Q

When did the psychodynamic approach remain a key force in psychology

A

For the first half of the 20th century

259
Q

Name 4 phenomena that the psychodynamic approach has been able to explain

A

Personality development
The origins of psychological disorders
Moral development
Gender identity

260
Q

What two things is the psychodynamic approach also key in linking

A

Connection between experiences in childhood, such as parent-child relationship, and out later development.

261
Q

What is one limitation of the psychodynamic approach

A

Much of it is untestable

262
Q

Who argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification

A

Karl Popper

263
Q

What did Karl Popper argue about the psychodynamic approaches scientific credibility

A

The psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification.
It is not open to empirical testing.

264
Q

Why are many of frauds theories difficult if not impossible to test

A

They are said to occur at an unconscious level.

265
Q

What about the way in which Freud carried out investigations makes it difficult to are universal claims about human behaviour
Given an example

A

His ideas were based on the subjective study of single individuals
Little Hans

266
Q

At what psychosexual stage does the Oedipus complex fit in

A

Phallic stage

267
Q

Define displacement within the psychodynamic approach

A

Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotions onto a substitute object

268
Q

What type of determinism is frauds theory most associated with

A

Psychic determinism

269
Q

Define the humanistic approach

A

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination

270
Q

Is the humanistic approach determinist or free will orientated

A

Free will

271
Q

Define free will

A

The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour / thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces

272
Q

Are people still effected by external and internal influences in the humanistic approach
What else is there that effects development

A

Yes
Active agents who can determine their own development

273
Q

Name the humanistic psychologists who reject more scientific models

A

Roger’s and Maslow

274
Q

What do Roger, Maslow and other humanistic psychologists reject

A

More scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour

275
Q

What is the person-centred approach in psychology

A

The idea that as active agents we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws.

276
Q

Do humanistic psychologists believe in general laws or the study of subjective experience

A

Study of subjective experience

277
Q

Who was one of the founding fathers of the humanistic movement

A

Abraham Maslow

278
Q

What was one of Maslow’s main interests and what did he describe it as

A

What motivates people to
Hierarchy of needs that motivate out behaviour

279
Q

Define Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

A

A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic physiological needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved

280
Q

What did Maslow believe the primary goal was

A

Self-actualisation

281
Q

Define self-actualisation

A

The desire to grown psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of

282
Q

Name the hierarchy of needs from the bottom moving up.

A

Physiological needs
Safety and security
Love and belongingness
Self-esteem
Self-actualisation

283
Q

Name the deficiency needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs from bottom to top

A

Physiological needs
Safety and security
Love and belongingness
Self-esteem

284
Q

Name the growth needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

Self-actualisation

285
Q

When is a person able to progress through to the next stage in the hierarchy

A

Once the current need in the sequence has been met

286
Q

What must be met in the hierarchy of needs before the individual can work towards self-actualisation

A

All the deficiency needs must be met

287
Q

What do humanistic psychologists regard as an essential part of what it is to be human

A

Personal growth

288
Q

What is personal growth

A

It is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated.

289
Q

Does everyone achieve personal growth
What might stop some people

A

No
Important psychological barriers

290
Q

Who made an argument about the gap between self and ideal self in the humanistic approach

A

Carl Roger’s

291
Q

What did Roger’s argue about personal growth, self and ideal self in the humanistic approach
(Key words)

A

For a personal growth to be achieved an individuals concept of self must be broadly equivalent to or have congruence with their ideal self.

292
Q

Define self in the humanistic approach

A

The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what i am’ and ‘what I can do’

293
Q

Define congruence in the humanistic approach

A

The aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.

294
Q

What will be the case if too big a gap exists between self and ideal-self

A

Experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence.

295
Q

What did Roger’s develop to reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self

A

Developed client-centred therapy

296
Q

What is the more common term for client-centred therapy

A

Counselling

297
Q

What is the goal of client-centred therapy

A

To help people cope with the problems of everyday living

298
Q

What did rogers claim about many of the issues we experience as adults such as worthlessness and low self-esteem.
What causes them and explains them

A

Have their roots in childhood and can often be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents.

299
Q

What will result from a parent setting boundaries or limits on their love of their child

A

Storing up psychological problems for that child in the future.

300
Q

Define conditions of worth

A

When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children.
‘I will only love you if…’

301
Q

What did rogers see as one of his roles as an effective therapist in terms of conditions of worth

A

Being able to provide clients with the unconditional positive regard that they had failed to receive as children

302
Q

Why did rogers refer to those in therapy as clients and not patients

A

He saw the individual as the expert on their own condition.

303
Q

What does rogers mean by non-directive therapy mean

A

Therapy is not directed by the therapist and the client is just encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere.

304
Q

What were the three aims of Rogerian therapy

A

Increase the persons feelings of self-worth
Reduce the level of incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self
Help the person become a more fully functioning person

305
Q

In the UK and US where are similar skills to those in Rogerian therapy used (5)

A

Clinical settings
Education
Health
Social work
Industry

306
Q

Is client-centred therapy acceptable for all
If not who is it best for

A

No
Best applied to the treatment of ‘mild’ psychological conditions such as anxiety and low self-worth

307
Q

What are two strengths of the humanistic approach

A

It rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components (reductionism)
It is optimistic

308
Q

What is the humanistic approach an advocate of

A

Holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.

309
Q

What is the counterpoint to the humanistic approach being holistic

A

Reductionist approaches may be more scientific

310
Q

Why might the humanistic approach being more holistic make it less scientific

A

The ideal of science is the experiment, and experiments reduce behaviour to independent and dependent variables.

311
Q

Can variables be easily broken down into single variables and measured in the humanistic approach

A

No
Relatively few can be

312
Q

The humanistic approach is short of what type of evidence to support its claims

A

Empirical

313
Q

Humanistic psychologists have been praised for promoting a positive image of what

A

Of the human condition

314
Q

What did Freud see humans as prisoners of what
What did he see us existing between

A

Prisoners of their past
All of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’

315
Q

What is one limitation of the humanistic approach

A

It may be culturally-biased

316
Q

The central ideas to humanistic psychology such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth are more readily associated with what type of countries

A

Countries that have more individualist tendencies

317
Q

Countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise the needs of what

A

The group and interdependence

318
Q

In what type of countries might the ideals of humanistic psychology be less important

A

Collectivist

319
Q

When humanistic psychology first emerged it was known as what force

A

The third force

320
Q

What can cultural differences in behaviour help understand
Example

A

A range of behaviours
How children come to understand their gender role

321
Q

One limitation of social learning theory

A

Evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies

322
Q

Why are lab studies criticised

A

For their contrived natures
Participants may respond to demand characteristics

323
Q

What experiment did bandura do

A

Bobo doll research

324
Q

What can be argued against BoBo doll experiment

A

The main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were behaving in the way they thought was expected.

325
Q

What does this mean for BoBo doll findings

A

Tell us little about how children learn aggression in every day life

PAPER 2 - PSYCHOLOGY (5 decks)

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