Biopsychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is your nervous system?
A
A network of nerve cells that send signals to and from the central nervous system to the different parts of the body
2
Q
What is the brain needed for?
A
. Processing complex information and higher ordered thinking
. decisions made here (sometimes not even aware you are making the decisions)
. It’s functions give us consciousness
. Oversees bodily functions
. Centre of awareness
3
Q
How is the brain split up?
A
Into a left and right hemisphere. The LH controls the right side of your body and the RH controls the left side of your body. The RH contains 4 lobes: frontal, temporal, occipital and paretal. Everything that goes on in the LH is also going on in the RH
4
Q
What is the outer-layer of the brain called?
A
The cerebral cortex, it is more developed than any other animal
5
Q
What is the central nervous system made up of?
A
Brain and spinal cord
6
Q
What is the spinal cord and what is its functions?
A
A collection of nerve cells attached to the brain and run down the length of the spinal column. An extension of the brain
. Transports messages to and from the brain to the peripheral nervous system
. Responsible for reflexes (automatic behaviours, bypasses brain processing) as it contains circuits of nerve cells that allow us to bypass brain activity.
. Allows brain to regulate and monitor bodily processes
7
Q
What structures does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) contain?
A
All nerves outside of the CNS
8
Q
What is the PNS split into?
A
Autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system
9
Q
How do nerves in the PNS work?
A
Relay information via electrical impulses from the rest of the body back to the CNS and vice versa
10
Q
What does your nervous system help parts of your body do?
A
Communicate
11
Q
What controls your nervous system?
A
Your brain
12
Q
What is the autonomic nervous system split into?
A
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
13
Q
What are two functions of the CNS?
A
. Control behaviour
. Regulate bodies physiological processes
14
Q
How do the brain and spinal cord work together?
A
Brain receives information from sensory receptors and your spinal cord is the route for these signals to travel to muscles/glands
15
Q
How does spinal cord and spinal nerves link?
A
Spinal cord is connected to other part of the body via pairs of spinal nerves which are then connected to specific muscles and glands
16
Q
What happens if your spinal cord is damaged?
A
Areas supplied by connected spinal nerves will be cut off from the brain and stop working
17
Q
What is the cerebrum?
A
Largest area of the brain, split into four lobes and into two halves (cerebral hemispheres)
18
Q
How do cerebral hemispheres communicate?
A
Via the corpus callosum
19
Q
What does the cerebellum control?
A
Motor skills, balance, coordinations of muscles for movement
20
Q
What can abnormalities in the cerebellum cause?
A
Speech and motor problems
Epilepsy
21
Q
What does the diencephalon contain?
A
The thalamus and hypothalamus
22
Q
What is the function of the thalamus?
A
Acts as a relay station for nerve impulses coming from the senses, routing them to appropriate parts of the brain where they can be processed
23
Q
What are functions of the hypothalamus?
A
. Regulates body temperature, hunger and thirst
. Acts as a link between the endocrine and nervous system, controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland
24
Q
What are the functions of the brain stem?
A
. Regulates automatic functions for life such as breathing
. Motor and sensory neurons travel through here, allowing impulses to pass between the brain and spinal cord
25
What is the sympathetic nervous system mostly involved in?
Responses to deal with emergencies e.g increased heart rate/blood pressure
26
How does the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) work efficiently?
Slows bodily processes that are less important in emergencies, such as digestion + urination
27
Where are neurones in the SNS connected to?
Almost every organ and gland, preparing the body for rapid response to threat
28
What are 6 effects of SNS activation?
. Increased pupil size = more light in = better vision
. Increased heart rate = greater blood flow to skeletal muscles
. Glycogen stored in liver converted to glucose for energy
. Bronchial tubes in lungs dilate = greater oxygen intake
Sweat glands stimulated = more sweat
Adrenal medulla stimulated = adrenaline released
29
What is the parasympathetic nervous system sometimes referred to as?
Your body’s rest and digestive system (energy conservation and digestion)
30
What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Relaxes body once an emergency has passed, slowing your heartbeat and reducing your blood pressure and influences digestion to start again
31
What does the somatic nervous system do?
Connects us internally to the external world
32
What is the somatic nervous system made up of?
12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. These nerves contain sensory and motor neurones
33
What is the somatic nervous system involved in?
Reflex actions without the CNS (quickly)
Where we pick up sensory information from external environment (receptors) which send signals towards the CNS
34
What can be said about the information received into the somatic nervous system?
It is under voluntary control (you can refuse the information)
35
How is the somatic nervous system involved in hearing a teacher speak?
. Impulses go to an area of the brain that deals with language (wernicka’s area)
. This language is processed and sent to the motor cortex which carry signals across motor neurones, causing you to pick up a pen and write what you heard
36
What do relay neurones do?
Pass information onto a motor neurone
37
What do sensory neurones do?
Relay messages to the CNS
38
What do motor neurones do?
Relay messages from the CNS to other areas of the body
39
What is the autonomic nervous system split into?
Parasympathetic NS: resting state, homeostasis
Sympathetic NS: fight/flight, no homeostasis
40
What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?
Regulate involuntary behaviours such as breathing
41
What kind of neurone pathways does the autonomic NS take?
Only motor pathways (pathways containing motor neurones)
42
How is the autonomic NS involved in homeostasis?
To regulate internal processes
43
What two neurotransmitters are released for the autonomic NS during fight/flight?
. Adrenaline
. Noradrenaline
44
Why is the autonomic nervous system needed?
Because if you had to think about these involuntary bodily functions they would be much less efficient
45
How are both divisions of the ANS both similar and different?
They usually regulate the same organs but have opposite effects
46
What neurotransmitter does the sympathetic NS usually use?
Noradrenaline as it is stimulating
47
What neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic NS usually use?
Acetylcholine as it has inhibiting effects
48
Which muscles are in the autonomic NS and what are they?
Smooth muscles - surround your vital organs
49
Which muscles are in your somatic NS and what are they?
Skeletal muscles - support your bones
50
What is most of the brain made up of?
Glial cells and astrocytes. These cells contain neurones
51
What are neurones?
Specialised cells which carry electrical impulses to and from the nervous system
52
How many neurones does the average human brain contain?
100 billion, connected to 1000 other neurones
53
What are the 3 types of neurones?
Sensory, motor and relay
54
What two places can impulses be received from?
. Other neurones
. Sensory receptors (for sensory neurones)
55
How do sensory neurones work?
. Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to your brain + spinal cord (CNS)
. Information from sensory receptors converted to neural impulses
. Once impulse reaches brain, it is translated into a sensation you can react to
. Some sensory neurones terminate at the spinal cord, allowing reflex actions to occur quickly
56
What is the most abundant type of neurone?
Relay neurone
57
What do relay neurones do?
Allow sensory and motor neurones to communicate and pass on information
58
Where are relay neurones located?
Only in brain and spinal cord
59
What is action potential?
The electrical signal that travels down the axons
60
What are motor neurones?
Neurones which conduct signals from the CNS to effector organs (muscle/gland)
61
How are motor neurones present in CNS and PNS?
Cell bodies of motor neurones may be in the CNS but have long axons which extend to form part of the PNS
62
What do motor neurones form that is important?
Synapses (gaps) with muscles, allowing the controlling of contractions
63
What happens when a motor neurone is stimulated?
. Motor neurone releases neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on a muscle and triggers the response of muscle movement
. When the axon of a motor neurone fires, it’s corresponding muscle it has formed a synapse with contracts
64
What does the strength of muscle contraction depend on?
How quickly the axon fires
65
What does inhibition of a motor neurone cause?
Muscle relaxation
66
What is the structure of dendrites for each neurone?
Sensory: long
Relay: short
Motor: short
67
What is the structure of axons for each neurone?
Sensory: short
Relay: short
Motor: long
68
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that allow neurones to communicate with each other
69
How do neurotransmitters reach the next neurone?
They diffuse across the synapse to convert electrical signals to chemical signals before reaching the next neurone
70
What is the neurone before and after synaptic transmission called?
Before: pre-synaptic neurone
After: post-synaptic neurone
71
What is the pleasure neurotransmitter?
Dopamine
72
How are neurotransmitters unique with the brain?
Each neurotransmitter has a unique pathway in the brain
73
What 3 things can happen once a neurotransmitter enters a synapse?
1. Some of it binds to receptors of next neurone
2. Neurotransmitter broken down by other enzymes in the brain and removed to be used elsewhere
3. Some of the neurotransmitters get reuptaken back into the pre-synaptic neurone, filling up the empty vesicle (like recycling)
74
What are vesicles?
Small cellular containers that contain neurotransmitters
75
What stimulated the release of neurotransmitters from a filled vesicle?
The action potential (electrical impulse)
76
What can neurotransmitters only bind to?
Specific receptors for that one neurotransmitter ONLY ON POST-SYNAPTIC NEURONE
77
Show how synaptic transmission works with dopamine?
1. The information that you will get a reward is passed down the axon of a pre-synaptic neurone as an electrical impulse called action potential
2. The end of the neurone contains vesicles with the neurotransmitter dopamine inside
3. Dopamine is released across the synapse through diffusion. Some of the dopamine binds to receptors to gain pleasure
4. Dopamine levels reset back to normal and some of the dopamine is ‘recycled’ back into empty vesicles
78
What is the endocrine system?
A network of glands throughout your body that make and secrete hormones
79
What is another word for hormones?
Chemical messengers
80
What do the endocrine system and nervous system work together to do?
Regulate the physiological process of the human body
81
How does the endocrine system deliver hormones to target sites in the body?
Using blood vessels rather than nerve impulses
82
What does the hypothalamus control?
The pituitary gland
83
What do the adrenal glands trigger?
Fight or flight
84
What do endocrine glands do?
Produce and secrete hormones
85
What are hormones?
Chemical substances that regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body and are carried to target sites in the body.
86
What are the three main endocrine system glands?
. Pituitary gland
. Adrenal glands
. Reproductive organs (testes and ovaries)
87
What kind of process is the processes of the endocrine system part of?
A negative feedback loop
88
Explain how hormones are released and carried within the endocrine system (negative feedback loop)?
1. Signal sent from hypothalamus to pituitary gland in the form of a ‘releasing hormone’
2. Pituitary gland secretes a ‘stimulating hormone’ into the blood
3. This hormone signals the target gland e.g adrenal gland to release its hormone
4. As levels of this hormone increase in the blood, the hypothalamus shuts down the secretion of the releasing hormone and the pituitary gland shuts off the secretion of the stimulating hormone
5. Secretion of target gland’s hormone slows down and a state of homeostasis for that hormone is released
89
What Greek word does the word hormone come from and what is its significance?
Hormao (‘I excite’) - shows each hormone stimulates a part of the body
90
What are target cells?
The group of cells which a hormone affects
91
What do target cells contain?
Receptors for their unique hormone
92
What happens once enough receptor sites are stimulated by a hormone?
A physiological reaction takes place in the target cell
93
What two things about hormones are critical for normal functioning?
. Timing of hormone release
. Level of hormone released - too much/too little = dysfunction of bodily systems
94
What can too much cortisol cause and what are it’s symptoms?
Cushing’s syndrome - causes high blood pressure and depression
95
What is the most common cause of having excess cortisol?
A tumour in the pituitary gland which creates too much ACTH hormone which stimulates adrenal gland to make excess cortisol.
96
What does the pituitary gland do?
Produces hormones which mainly cause the release of hormones from other glands, regulating many bodily functions. Can sometimes directly cause changes to physiological processes
97
What is the role of the hypothalamus?
Receives information from many sources about the basic functions of the body,and then helps regulate these functions
98
What is a negative feedback loop in terms of the endocrine system?
When hormone levels are too high so the hypothalamus and pituitary gland stop this hormone being secreted so levels don’t get too high and reach a state of homeostasis
99
What are the two main parts of the pituitary gland?
Anterior (front) pituitary
Posterior (back) pituitary
100
What is the main difference between the two parts of the pituitary gland?
Release different hormones which target different areas of the body
101
What does the anterior pituitary release?
ACTH in response to stress
LH (luteinising hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
102
What does ACTH do?
Stimulates adrenal glands to produce cortisol - calms you down
103
Is cortisol a hormone?
Yes
104
What does LH and FSH do in men and women?
Men: stimulates testes to produce testosterone and sperm
Women: stimulates ovaries to produce oestrogen and progesterone
105
What does the posterior pituitary release?
Oxytocin
106
What does oxytocin do?
Stimulates the contraction of uterus during childbirth and important for mother-infant bonding
107
What happens to oxytocin levels with age?
They decrease
108
How many adrenal glands are there and where are they?
2. Both sit on top of kidneys
109
What are the two parts of the adrenal glands?
Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
110
What is the adrenal cortex?
Outer part of the adrenal gland and hormones released from here are necessary for life
111
What is the adrenal medulla?
The inner region of the adrenal gland, hormones released from here not necessary for life
112
What two hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?
Cortisol and aldosterone
113
What does cortisol do?
Regulates and supports many bodily functions such as cardiovascular functions. More cortisol is produced during stress to suppress it and calm you down
114
What does low cortisol cause?
Low blood pressure, inability to deal with stress, poor immune functioning
115
What is aldosterone for?
Responsible for maintaining blood volume and blood pressure
116
What hormones are produced by the adrenal medulla?
Adrenaline and noradrenaline (both involved in fight/flight)
117
What do adrenaline and noradrenaline do?
Adrenaline - helps body respond to stressful situations
Noradrenaline - constricts blood vessels, increasing blood pressure
118
What are ovaries responsible for?
The production of eggs and the hormones oestrogen and progesterone
Responsible for development of secondary sexual characteristics in females
119
What has progesterone been unusually associated with?
Heightened sensitivity to social cues that indicate a social opportunity/threat that would be significant during pregnancy
120
What does oestrogen do?
Stimulates development of secondary sexual characteristic and prepares womb for pregnancy
121
What is good about oestrogen being used in hormone replacement therapy?
It may lead to a reduction in the risk of Alzheimer’s disease
122
Do women have testosterone?
Yes, in smaller amounts than men
123
What do testes do?
Produce testosterone
124
What does testosterone do?
Causes development of secondary sexual characteristics (puberty changes)
125
What is the production of testosterone controlled by?
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland
126
What 4 things does testosterone play roles in?
. Sex drive
. Sperm production
. Maintenance of muscle strength
. Associated with better overall health in men
127
What is summation in synaptic transmission?
The summed total of inhibitory and exhibitory neurotransmitter that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neurone
128
How is the structure of a neurone related to its function?
. Cell body: contains nucleus with genetic material
. Myelin sheath: insulates and protects the axon
. Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in myelin sheath that speed up impulse transmission
. Terminal buttons: send impulses to next neurone across synapse
129
How are reflex actions different in the ANS and SNS?
ANS controls internal reflex actions such as heart rate regulation
SNS controls muscle reflexes (typical definition of a reflex)
130
How does a reflex arc work in the SNS?
. Sensory neurones carry a signal to the spinal cord but not the brain
. As there are relay neurones in the spinal cord, the final can go to the motor neurones and to the effectors straight away
. As the muscles move without any input from the brain, reflex actions are very efficient and automatic
