Biopsychology Flashcards
What are the functions of the nervous system?
- To collect, process and respond to information in the environment
- To coordinate the working of different cells and organs in the body
What two sections in the nervous system divided into?
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is included in the CNS and what is its function?
Brain and Spinal cord: Controls behaviour, bodily processes and muscles
What is the role of the PNS?
Controls relay messages to/from the CNS
What is the PNS divided into?
- Autonomic Nervous System
- Somatic Nervous System
What is the Autonomic Nervous System divided into?
- Sympathetic
- Parasympathetic
What is the role of the Sympathetic branch?
Controls fight or flight. Travel to nearly every organ and gland in the body to prepare for this response
What is the role of the Parasympathetic branch?
Controls calm ‘caretaking’ functions. Involved in energy conservation and digestion referred to as ‘rest and digest’.
What are neurons?
Carry information in electric impulses. Information is received by terminals at the dendrites.
What are the three types of neurons?
- Relay
- Sensory
- Motor
What is the role of Relay neurons?
transmit information
What is the role of the Sensory neurons?
receiving information
What is the role of the Motor neurons?
controlling muscles to respond
What is the process of the Reflex Arc response to a stimulus?
- Receptor in the skin detects a stimulus
- Sensory neurons send impulses to relay neurons. Connect the sensory neurons to the motor neurons
- The effector produces a response from the motor neuron
Draw and Label a neuron
\:))) (I have no advice) Should have: - Dendrite - Myelin Sheath - Axon Terminal - Axon - Nucleus - Nodes of Ranvier - Cell Body
What is the role of the dendrite?
Carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons or sensory receptors to the cell body
What is the role of the Cell Body?
Control centre of the neuron
What is the role of the Myelin Sheath?
Fatty layer that protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of the action potential
What is the role of the Axon Terminal?
Communicate with the next neuron in the chain across the synapse
What is the role of the Axon?
Carries action potential away from the cell body down the length of the neuron
What is the role of the Nucleus?
Contains genetic material
What is the role of the Nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps in the myelin sheath that speeds up transmission of action potential by forcing the impulse to ‘jump’ across the gaps along the axon
What is Synaptic Transmission?
Communication of neurons, through synapses. Action Potentials are translated into Neurotransmitter. These messages are interpreted at receptors.
What is the Process of Synaptic Transmission?
- Action Potential or NT arrives at the terminal from the axon
- NT is packaged into vesicles
- Vesicle fuses with cell membrane
- NT fuses across synapse
- NT binds to receptors
- Surplus NTs are broken down or recycled by uptake channels
What are the two different post synaptic potential messages?
- Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
- Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
What is Summation?
If a neuron receives both excitatory and inhibitory signals, the total number of each are added up and the most powerful signal wins. This summation can be temporal or spatial
What is Temporal summation?
Very quick firing of one presynaptic neuron
What is Spatial summation?
Lots of small signals happening at different synapses
Draw the Summation graph
\:))) (again no advice) Should have: - Threshold - Depolarisation - Repolarisation - IPSP - EPSP - Refractory period - Resting state
What is Localisation of Function?
When functions are associated with activity specific areas in the brain
What is the function of the Motor Cortex?
Stimulates and controls conscious and physical movement
What is the function of the Somatosensory Cortex?
Synthesises sensory information from peripheral neurons to create physical sensations.
What is the function of the Visual Cortex?
Receives, groups and passes on visual signals from the retina through the optic nerve giving us visual perception
What is the function of the Auditory Cortex?
Receives signals from the ears and created auditory perception
What is the function of Broca’s Area?
It’s a centre for language production. Combines signals from other regions to create speech. Broca’s Aphasia is the loss of the ability to understand language.
What is the function of Wernicke’s Area?
Centre for understanding language. Allows us to interpret physical and verbal communication. Wernicke’s Aphasia is the loss of the ability to produce language.
What is Hemispheric Lateralisation?
the two halves of the brain are functionally different and each hemisphere has functional specialisations. The two hemispheres are connected through the Corpus Callosum.
What happens during Split Brain surgery?
In old surgeries, the whole structure of either the hippocampus or corpus callosum was removed. In modern day, only a small legion is made.
Who did a study on Split Brain surgery?
Sperry (1968)
What was the aim of Sperry’s split brain research?
To investigate hemispheric lateralisation of function on split brain patients
How was Sperry’s split brain research carried out?
IV 1: Stimulus presented to right hand side (hand/eye)
IV 2: Stimulus presented to left hand side (hadn/eye)
DV(a): accuracy in reporting stimulus number via hand signal
DV (b): accuracy in reporting stimulus number via speech
What were the findings of Sperry’s research?
- Stimulus presented to the right hand side can be reported verbally but not signed with the right hand
- Stimulus presented to the left hand side can be signed with the right hand but not reported verbally
What was the conclusion of Sperry’s research?
Severing the corpus callosum prevents lateralized functional areas receiving signals from the opposite side of the body. Language is lateralized to the left side of the body.
What is Plasticity?
the ability to change and adapt in response to experience. Pathways that are used more will grow thicker and develop more branches. Pathways that are not used often enough will be destroyed.
What are the two types of Plasticity?
- Structural Plasticity (growth)
- Functional Recovery (recovery)
What are the four stages of Structural Plasticity?
Stage 1: Synaptic Pruning
Stage 2: Neural Unmasking
Stage 3: Axonal Sprouting
Stage 4: Synaptic Connection
What is the first stage of Structural Plasticity (growth)?
Synaptic Pruning: Axons that aren’t used will weaken and eventually be lost
What is the second stage of Structural Plasticity (growth)?
Neural Unmasking: A hormone, Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), encourages growth
What is the third stage of Structural Plasticity?
Axonal Sprouting: Guidance proteins called neurotrophins sustain and encourage growth
What is the final stage of Structural Plasticity?
Synaptic Connection: The new connection makes its parent network stronger
What are the four stages of Functional Recovery?
Stage 1: Axon Damage (Axotomy)
Stage 2: Axonal Sprouting
Stage 3: Blood Vessels Reform
Stage 4: Recruitment of Homologous areas
What is the first stage of Functional Recovery?
Axon Damage (Axotomy): Axon is severed by injury (dendrites would just regrow)
What is the second stage of Functional Recovery:
Axonal Sprouting: New axon/dendrite growth towards target
What is the third stage of Functional Recovery?
Blood Vessels Reform: ‘glial’ cells wrap around capillaries and support blood-brain barrier
What is the final stage of Functional Recovery?
Recruitment of Homologous Areas: Usually on opposite hemispheres
What is the process of an fMRI?
- Patient performs tasks inside the electromagnet tunnel
- Hydrogen nuclei releases energy when they realign
- Energy differences are mapped and brighter areas have more blood flow, they’re doing more work
How did Beck & Ellis use fMRIs to explain depression?
They had a cognitive theory saying that depressed peopl misattribute events. In scans, you can see rational areas inactive and negative emotional areas overactive in depressed patients.
How can psychopathy be explained using fMRI scans?
Criminal psychopaths experience negative emotions and are also very impulsive. IN scans, you can see rational decision-making areas are inactive and emotion and social/action centres are active
What are strengths of fMRIs?
- Noninvasive
- No radiation
- More objective/reliable than self-report
- Offers a window into things we cannot otherwise investigate in living brains
What are the weaknesses of fMRIs?
- Correlational data only, third variable problem
- Measures blood flow, not actual activity. Not a perfect quantitative source
- Shows which regions work. Modern psychology suggests its communication between regions that’s important but the fMRI cannot show that.
What is the process of Electroencephalograms? (EEGs)
Measures electrical activity in the brain using scalp contacts. Used to diagnose epilepsy and Alzheimer’s.
What five waves does EEGs measure? And what do these indicate?
- Gamma - Alert, learning
- Beta - Awake and aroused
- Alpha - Awake and relaxed
- Theta - Light sleep/ deep meditation
- Delta - Deep sleep / repair
What are the strengths of EEGs?
- Real-time information about brain activity
- Useful in clinical diagnoses
- Low-cost option for research
What are the weaknesses of EEGs?
- Correlational data only, third variable problem
- Only sees surface activity. Needs electrodes to measure deeper brain areas. In animals we can, but in humans its invasive/unethical
What is the process of Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)?
- Patient repeats an action many times
- Record ‘normal’ baseline readings
- Can then infer what electrical activity was due to the activity
- Small changes in voltage in the brain are detected using an EEG machine
What are the two types of Event Related Potential?
Sensory ERP: within 100ms of the stimulus (detecting)
Cognitive ERp: after 100ms of the stimulus (interpreting
What are the strengths of ERPs?
- Possible to see changes in brain activity in response to stimuli
- Can record processing that has no behavioural response. Can tell what someone is thinking.
What are the weaknesses of ERPs?
- Correlational data only, third variable problem
- Need a very large number of trials to establish a response. This limits when/how it can be useful. It’s time consuming and expensive
- Cannot measure activity deeper in the brain. Only useful for neocortical measurements
What is the process of Post Mortem Examination?
- If we look at the brain of people that had known impairments when alive, we can see what went wrong within their brain.
Examples where Post Mortem Examination has been used successfully
- Broca used it to learn about a language centre
- Henry Molaison
- Cotter (2001) found low numbers of connecting cells in depressed peoples PFC
What are strengths of Post Mortem Examination?
- Much more detail can be seen than in scans
- All regions in the brain are available to study
- Much of our earlier understanding of SZ was due to postmortem studies. This is how we know about brain structure changes.
What are weaknesses of Post Mortem Examination?
- Lots of confounding variables; Drugs taken before death, degradation of brain tissue after death, diseases, age of brain
- Only a snapshot. The person is dead so there’s no follow up or ability to ask for history.
What is the Endocrine system?
network of glands throughout the body that manufacture and secrete chemical messengers called hormones. Communication happens via bloodstream. Works closely with the nervous system but acts much slower.
What is the role of glands?
Controls many body functions. Controlled by the hypothalamus.
What are the three glands we look at?
- Pituitary glands
- Adrenal glands
- Reproductive glands
What is the role of the Pituitary glands?
Controlled by the hypothalamus and is resfor many psychology-biology functions
What hormones does the pituitary gland release?
ACTH: Responding to stress
Oxytocin: Orgasm, pair bonding, social recognition, anxiety
What are the two parts to the adrenal glands?
Adrenal cortex: necessary to live, releases cortisol
Adrenal medulla: not necessary to live, releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
What are is the role of ovaries?
Egg production, oestrogen and progesterone. Progesterone causes threat and social responsiveness
What is the roles of the testes?
Testosterone which causes aggression, sex drive, muscle size/strength, and bone density. Testosterone is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
What are hormones?
chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and are carried away to target sites.
What is Adrenaline?
Fight or Flight neurotransmitter
What is Noradrenaline?
Concentration neurotransmitter
What is Dopamine?
Pleasure neurotransmitter
What is Serotonin?
Mood neurotransmitter
What is GABA?
Calming neurotransmitter
What is Glutamate?
Memory neurotransmitter
What are Endorphins
Euphoria neurotransmitter
What is the Amygdala?
Brain region processing fear/pain
What is the Hypothalamus?
Brain region controlling homeostasis
What is the Pituitary gland?
‘Master gland’ that controls other glands
What is ACTH?
Starts production of noradrenaline & adrenaline
What is CRH?
Starts production of cortisol
What is the Adrenal Medulla?
Produces noradrenaline and adrenaline
What is the Adrenal Cortex?
Produces cortisol
What is the order of the Fight or Flight response?
Stressor > amygdala > hypothalamus & pituitary gland > CRH > Adrenal cortex > Cortisol
Stressor > amygdala > hypothalamus & pituitary gland > ACTH > Adrenal Medulla > Adrenaline/noradrenaline
