Biopsych

Question 1

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Answer 1

The central nervous system receives information from the senses and controls the behavior and regulation of the body’s psychological processes.

Question 2

What is the CNS made up of?

Answer 2

The brain and spinal cord.

Question 3

Four main lobes of the brain

Answer 3

Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe

Question 4

Occipital lobe role

Answer 4

The occipital lobe processes visual information

Question 5

Temporal lobe role

Answer 5

The temporal lobe processes auditory information

Question 6

Parietal lobe role

Answer 6

The parietal lobe integrates information from the different senses and therefore plays an important role in spatial navigation

Question 7

Frontal lobe role

Answer 7

The frontal lobe is associated with higher-order functions, including planning, abstract reasoning and logic.

Question 8

Brain Stem role

Answer 8

The brain stem connects the brain and spinal cord and controls involuntary processes, including our heartbeat, breathing and consciousness.

Question 9

Spinal cord role

Answer 9

The role of the spinal cord is to transfer messages to and from the brain, and the rest of the body. The spinal cord is also responsible for simple reflex actions that do not involve the brain, for example, putting your hand on a hot flame.

Question 10

Role of the peripheral nervous system

Answer 10

The role of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is to relay messages (nerve impulses) from the CNS to the rest of the body.

Question 11

Two main components of the Peripheral Nervous System

Answer 11

Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System

Question 12

Role of the Somatic Nervous System

Answer 12

The role of the somatic nervous system is to carry sensory information from the outside world to the brain and provide muscle responses via the motor pathways.

Question 13

Role of the Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 13

The autonomic nervous system plays an important role in homeostasis, which maintains internal processes like body temperature, heart rate and blood pressure. It has two components.

Question 14

Two components of Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 14

Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System

Question 15

Role of Sympathetic Nervous System

Answer 15

The sympathetic nervous system is typically involved in responses that prepare the body for fight or flight. Impulses travel from the sympathetic nervous system to organs in the body to help us prepare for action when we are faced with a dangerous situation. For example, our heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate increase, while less important functions like digestion and salivation are suppressed.

Question 16

Role of Parasympathetic Nervous System

Answer 16

The role of the parasympathetic nervous system is to relax the body, and return us to our ‘normal’ resting state. Consequently, the parasympathetic nervous system slows down our heart rate and breathing rate, and reduces our blood pressure. Furthermore, any functions that were previously slowed down during a fight or flight reaction are started again (e.g. digestion).

Question 17

Sensory Neurons

Answer 17

Sensory neurons are found in sensory receptors, and carry nerve impulses to the spinal cord and brain. When these nerve impulses reach the brain, they are translated into ‘sensations’, such as vision, hearing, taste and touch. However, not all sensory neurons reach the brain, as some neurons stop at the spinal cord, allowing for quick reflex actions.

Question 18

Relay Neurons

Answer 18

Relay neurons are found between sensory input and motor output/response. Relay neurons are found in the brain and spinal cord and allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate. They translate the signal.

Question 19

Motor Neurons

Answer 19

Motor neurons are found in the central nervous system (CNS) and control muscle movements. When motor neurons are stimulated they release neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on muscles to trigger a response, which lead to movement.

Question 20

Dendrite

Answer 20

The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells. The dendrites are typically connected to the cell body, which is often referred to as the ‘control centre’ of the neuron, as it’s contains the nucleus.

Question 21

The Axon

Answer 21

The axon is a long slender fibre that carries nerve impulses, in the form of an electrical signal known as action potential, away from the cell body towards the axon terminals, where the neuron ends. Most axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath (except for relay neurons) which insulates the axon so that the electrical impulses travel faster along the axon.

Question 22

The Axon Terminal

Answer 22

The axon terminal connects the neuron to other neurons (or directly to organs), using a process called synaptic transmission.

Question 23

Synaptic Transmission

Answer 23

Electrical Impulse passed down axon to axon terminal, known as action potential.
Must cross gap between pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neuron, called synaptic gap.
In the axon terminal are synaptic vesicles.
Synaptic vesicles release their content of neurotransmitters as the electrical impulse reaches them.
Neurotransmitters carry signal across the synaptic gap.
They bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic cell.
The receptors then become activated and produce either excitatory or inhibitory effects on the post-synaptic cell, depending on the type of neurotransmitter.

Question 24

Synaptic Vesicles

Answer 24

Synaptic Vesicles are located at the end of the neuron, in the axon terminal. They contain chemical messengers, known as neurotransmitters.

Question 25

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Answer 25

Excitatory neurotransmitters make the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire. When excitatory neurotransmitter binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell more likely to fire.

Question 26

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Answer 26

Inhibitory neurotransmitters make the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire. When an inhibitory neurotransmitter binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will result in an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP), which makes the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire.

Question 27

Hypothalamus

Answer 27

The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland and is responsible for stimulating or controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
Controls and regulates the endocrine system.

Question 28

Pituitary gland

Answer 28

Master Gland
Posterior Lobe - Oxytocin - responsible for uterus contractions during childbirth.
Anterior Lobe - adrenocortical trophic hormone - stimulates the adrenal cortex and the release of cortisol, during the stress response.

Question 29

Pineal Gland

Answer 29

Melatonin
Biological rhythms (sleep-wake cycle)

Question 30

Thyroid Gland

Answer 30

Thyroxine - Regulates metabolism

Question 31

Adrenal Gland

Answer 31

Adrenal Medulla - adrenaline, noradrenaline - key in fight or flight response.
Adrenal Cortex - Cortisol - Stimulates release of glucose, suppresses the immune system.

Question 32

Ovaries (female)

Answer 32

Oestrogen - Regulates female reproductive system, like menstrual system.

Question 33

Testes (male)

Answer 33

Testosterone - Development of sex characteristics, promotes muscle growth.

Question 34

Amygdala

Answer 34

In a potentially stressful situation, the amygdala is activated. It responds to sensory input and connects them with emotions associated with the fight or flight response.

Question 35

How the body prepares for fight or flight

Answer 35

Enter dangerous situation.
Amygdala is activated and sends distress signal to hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus activates the sympathomedullary pathway (SAM pathway) which runs to the adrenal medulla and sympathetic nervous system.
SNS stimulates the adrenal medulla.
Adrenal medulla secretes the hormones adrenaline + noradrenaline into the bloodstream.
This causes a number of physiological changes to prepare for body for fight or flight.

Question 36

Body following fight or flight

Answer 36

The parasympathetic nervous system is activated to return the body back to its normal state.

Question 37

Fight or flight physiological changes

Answer 37

increased heart rate - increase blood flow to organs and movement of adrenaline around the body.
Increase breathing rate - increase oxygen intake.
Pupil dilation - increase light entry and enhance revision.
Sweat production - Regulate temperature.
Reductions of non-essential functions - increase energy for other functions.

Question 38

Fight or flight Evaluation

Answer 38

Androcentrism - typically conducted on males, generalised to females.
Taylor et al. found women are more likely to protect their offspring and form ‘alliances’ with other women, creating a ‘tend and befriend’ effect. So, fight or flight is typically a male response.

Gray suggests our reaction is not limited to fight or flight. First response to danger is to avoid confrontation to danger, demonstrated by a freeze response. Become hyper-vigilant, find best course of action.

Was useful survival mechanism for ancestors. Rarely face life-threatening situations today. Stress continually activates SNS, increasing blood pressure which van damage blood vessels and cause heart disease. Maladaptive response in modern-day life.

Question 39

Localisation of function

Answer 39

Localisation of function is the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) have certain locations or areas within the brain.
Supported by neuroimaging studies and case studies of people with brain damage.

Question 40

Case of Phineas Cage

Answer 40

While working on a rail line he was in a drastic accident in which a piece of iron went through his skull. Cage survived but experience a change in personality, such as a loss of inhibition and anger. Provides evidence to support the theory of localisation of brain function.

Question 41

Motor Cortex

Answer 41

Located in the frontal lobe.
Responsible for voluntary movements by sending signals to muscles in the body.
A study discovered that different muscles are coordinated by different areas of the motor cortex. They electrically stimulated the motor cortex of dogs which resulted in muscular contractions in different areas of the body. Regions are arranged in logical order, finger region next to hand, so on.

Question 42

Somatosensory Cortex

Answer 42

Located in parietal lobe.
Receives incoming sensory information from skin to produce sensations related to pressure, pain, temperature, etc.
Different parts of somatosensory cortex receive messages from different locations.
Robertson (1995) found cortex is highly adaptable, with Braille readers having larger areas in the somatosensory for their fingertips compared to normal sighted readers.

Question 43

Visual Cortex

Answer 43

Located in the occipital lobe.
Receives and processes visual information. Information from right-hand side visual field is processed in the left hemisphere, left visual field in the right hemisphere.
Contains different parts that process different types of information, including colour and shape.

Question 44

Auditory Cortex

Answer 44

Located in temporal lobe.
Responsible for analysing and processing acoustic information. Info from left ear primarily goes to right hemisphere, right ear primarily to left hemisphere.
Contains different parts, primary auditory area is involved in processing simple features of sound (volume, tempo, pitch).

Question 45

Broca’s Area

Answer 45

Discovered region while treating a patient. The patient could understand spoken language but was unable to produce any coherent words, could only say ‘tan’.
After his death, Broca conducted a post-mortem and discovered that he had a lesion in the left frontal lobe. Concluded that this area was responsible for speech production. People with damage to this area experience Broca’s aphasia, which results in slow and inarticulate speech.

Question 45

Broca’s Area

Answer 45

Discovered region while treating a patient. The patient could understand spoken language but was unable to produce any coherent words, could only say ‘tan’.
After his death, Broca conducted a post-mortem and discovered that he had a lesion in the left frontal lobe. Concluded that this area was responsible for speech production. People with damage to this area experience Broca’s aphasia, which results in slow and inarticulate speech.

Question 46

Wernicke’s Area

Answer 46

Found another area of brain involved in understanding language. Wernicke found patients with lesions to Wernicke’s area (left frontal lobe) were able to speak, but were unable to comprehend language.
Wernicke’s area is thought to be involved in language processing/comprehension.
People with damage to this area stuffle to comprehend language, producing sentences that are fluent, but meaningless.
Concluded language involves a separate motor and sensory region. Motor = Borca, Sensory = Wernicke

Question 47

Evaluating Localisation of function - I/D

Answer 47

Biologically reductionist in nature.
Tries to reduce complex human behaviors and cognitive processes, such as language, to one specifiec brain region.
More thorough understanding of the brain is required to truly understand complex cognitive processes.

Question 48

Evaluating Localisation of function - Lashley

Answer 48

Equipotentiality theory
Suggest that basic motor and sensory function are localised, but higher mental functions are not. Claims that intact areas of a cortex could take over responsibility for specific cognitive functions following a brain injury. Therefore cast doubt on theories about localisation, suggesting that functions are not localised just to one region, as other regions can take over functions if required.

Question 48

Evaluating Localisation of function - Lashley

Answer 48

Equipotentiality theory
Suggest that basic motor and sensory function are localised, but higher mental functions are not. Claims that intact areas of a cortex could take over responsibility for specific cognitive functions following a brain injury. Therefore cast doubt on theories about localisation, suggesting that functions are not localised just to one region, as other regions can take over functions if required.

Question 49

Evaluating Localisation of function - contradictory evidence

Answer 49

Study conducted MRI scan on Tan’s brain to confirm Broca’s findings. Was lesion, also found evidence to suggest other areas may have contributed to the failure in speech production. Suggest Broca’s area may not be only region responsible…
Furthermore, more important to investigate how the brain areas communicate. Although may be independent, need to to interact. Suggests possibility that interactions between areas produce complex behaviours. Therefore, damage to connections of regions can resemble damage to the localised brain regions associated with that specific function. Reducing credibility.

Question 50

Lateralisation

Answer 50

Idea that two halves of the brain are functionally different.
Each hemisphere has functional specialisations, e.g. left is dominant for language, right excels at visual motor tasks.

Question 51

Split-Brain Research Aim

Answer 51

Sperry and Gazzaniga
Investigated hemispheric lateralisation with the use of split-brain patients (separated hemispheres).
Aim: examine the extent to which the two hemispheres are specialised for certain functions.
Method: Image/word is projected

Question 52

Split-Brain Research Method

Answer 52

Method: Image/word is projected to patients left visual field (right hemisphere) or right visual field (left hemisphere). Information presented is not transferred to the other hemisphere as corpus callosum is cut.
Many tests:
Describe - simply describe what they saw in presented picture.
Tactile - describe what they felt from object in one hand or select similar object.
Drawing - draw what they saw from picture presented in one of their visual fields.

Question 53

Split-Brain Research Findings

Answer 53

Describe:
Left hemisphere - could describe what they saw, superior in language production.
Right hemisphere - not describe what was shown, often reported nothing was present.
Tactile:
Left hemisphere - could describe verbally what they felt or select similar object from series.
Right hemisphere - could not describe, but could identify object from series.
Drawing:
left hemisphere - would attempt to draw, never was clear as left hand, superiority of right hemisphere for visual motor tasks.
Right hemisphere -consistently draw clear pictures.

Question 54

Split- Brain Research Conclusion

Answer 54

Highlights key differences between two hemispheres.
Left is dominant is speech and language. Right is dominant in visual motor tasks.

Question 55

Split Brain Research Evaluation

Answer 55

• Advantage, increases neural processing capacity. Chicken with brain lateralisation had enhanced ability to perform two tasks. Leaves one hemisphere free, shows enhancing of brain efficiency in cognitive tasks. However, cannot generalise to humans - few participants, idiographic approach. Cannot be generalised to wider population.
• Szaflarki found lateralisation changes with age. Found language became more lateralised in left hemisphere in children/adolescents. After 25, lateralisation decreased with each decade of life. Raises quesions over whether everyone has has one dominant hemisphere and whether it changes with age.
• Turk et al. discovered language may not be restricted to the left hemisphere. Patient damaged left hemisphere but quickly developed capacity to speak in the right. Eventually leading to ability to speak about information presented to either side of the brain. Perpaps lateralisation is not fixed and brain can adpat.

Question 56

Split Brain Research Evaluation

Answer 56

• Advantage, increases neural processing capacity. Chicken with brain lateralisation had enhanced ability to perform two tasks. Leaves one hemisphere free, shows enhancing of brain efficiency in cognitive tasks. However, cannot generalise to humans - few participants, idiographic approach. Cannot be generalised to wider population.
• Szaflarki found lateralisation changes with age. Found language became more lateralised in left hemisphere in children/adolescents. After 25, lateralisation decreased with each decade of life. Raises questions over whether everyone has has one dominant hemisphere and whether it changes with age.
• Turk et al. discovered language may not be restricted to the left hemisphere. Patient damaged left hemisphere but quickly developed capacity to speak in the right. Eventually leading to ability to speak about information presented to either side of the brain. Perhaps lateralisation is not fixed and brain can adapt.

Question 57

Brain Plasticity

Answer 57

Refers to brain’s ability to change and adapt because of experience. Research shows that the brain creates new neural pathways and alter existing ones in response to changing experiences.

Question 58

Functional Recovery

Answer 58

The transfer of functions from a damaged area after trauma to other undamaged areas.

Question 59

Neuronal Unmasking

Answer 59

Process of functional recovery termed neuronal unmasking where dormant synapses, which have not received enough input to be active, open connections to compensate for nearby damaged area of the brain. Allows for new connections in the brain to be activated, thus recovering any damage.

Question 60

Evidence/Evaluation for Plasticity and Functional Recovery Overview

Answer 60

Davidson - Monks
Elbert - Deterioration with age
Taijiri - Stem cells in rats

Question 61

Evidence/Evaluation for Plasticity and Functional Recovery - Davidson

Answer 61

Demonstrated permanent change in the brain generated by prolonged meditation. moks who meditated frequently had much greater activation of gamma waves, which coordinate neural activity, than students who had no experience meditating. Highlights idea of plasticity and brain’s ability to adapt as a result of new experience.

Question 62

Evidence/Evaluation for Plasticity and Functional Recovery - Elbert

Answer 62

Possible that the ability of functional recovery can deteriorate with age. Elbert concluded capacity for neural reorganisation is much greater in children than adults. Less effective in older brains. Therefore, much consider individual differences when assessing the likelihood of functional recovery after trauma.

Question 63

Evidence/Evaluation for Plasticity and Functional Recovery - Taijiri

Answer 63

Support claim for functional recovery. Found stem cells provided to rats after brain trauma showed a clear sign of development of neuron-like cells in the area of injury. Demonstrates the ability of the brain to create new connections using neurons manufactured by stem cells.

Question 64

Post-mortem examination

Answer 64

Researchers will study the physical brain of a person who displayed a particular behaviour while they were alive that suggested brain damage.
Broca
Wernicke

Question 65

Evaluation of Post-Mortem Examination Overview

Answer 65

Causation -> confounding factors
Provide detail on structure
Ethical Issues

Question 66

Evaluation of Post-Mortem Examination - Causation

Answer 66

One limitation is the issue of causation. A deficit a patient diplayes during their lifetime may not be linked to the deficits found in the brain. Reported deficits could have been the result of another illness and therefore psychologists are unable to conclude the cause of the deficit.
Furthemore, many extraneous factors. People die at different stages of life and for a variety of reasons. Also any medication, age, length of time between death and examination are all confounding variables that make conclusions questionable.

Question 67

Evaluation of Post-Mortem Examination - Detail on structure

Answer 67

One strength is that they provide a detailed examination of the anatomical structure and the neurochemical aspects of the brain that is not possible with other scanning techniques. Post-mortem examinations cna access areas like the hypothalamus and hippocampus. others can’t. Deeper insight often provide useful basis for further research.

Question 68

Evaluation of Post-Mortem Examination - Ethical Issues

Answer 68

Are ethical issues in relation to informed consent and whether or not a patient provides consent before their death. Furthermore, many post-mortem examinations are carried out on patients with severe psychological deficits, who are often unable to provide fully informed consent, and yet a post-mortem examination has been conducted. Raises ethical questions surrounding nature.

Question 69

fMRI

Answer 69

Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Brain scan that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task. Works on the premise that most active neurons in the brain use the most energy.

Question 70

How an fMRI works

Answer 70

Energy requires glucose and oxygen. Oxygen is carried in the bloodstream attached to haemoglobin and is released for use by these active neurons.
At this point the haemoglobin becomes deoxygenated.
Deoxygenated haemoglobin has different magnetic quality from oxygenated haemoglobin. An fMRi can detect these differences and can be used to create a demonic map of the brain. Highlighting which areas are involved in different neural activities, from an increase in blood flow.

Question 71

Evaluation of fMRI - Non-invasive

Answer 71

Advantage of fMRi is that it is non-invasive. Does involve radiation or inserting instruments into the brain, therefore risk-free. This should allow more patients to undertake fMRi scans which should help psychologists to gather data and develop our understanding of localisation of function.

Question 72

Evaluation of fMRI - Spatial Resolution

Answer 72

fMRI have good spatial resolution.
Spatial resolution refers to the smallest feature that a scanner can detect. Allows psychologists to discriminate between different brain regions with greater accuracy.
Have a spatial resolution of roughly 1-2mm which is significantly greater than other techniques.

Question 73

Evaluation of fMRI - Temporal Resolution

Answer 73

fMRi scans have poor temporal resolution.
Refers to the accuracy of the scanner in relation to time (how quickly the scanner can detect changes).
Temporal resolution of 1-4s, worse than other techniques.
Unable to predict with a high degree of temporal resolution of brain activity.

Question 74

Evaluation of fMRI - Causation

Answer 74

fMRI do not provide a direct measure of neural activity. Simply measure changes in blood flow and therefore impossible to infer causation at the neural level.
While change in blood flow may indicate activity within a certain brain area, psychologists are unable to conclude the region is associated with a particular function.
Furthermore, some psychologists argue fMRI scans are limited in showing the communication that takes place between regions, which is critical.

Question 75

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 75

Works on premise that information is processed in the brain as electrical activity in form of action potentials, transmitted along neurons. EEG scanners measure electrical activity via electrodes attached to the scalp. Small charges detected over long period of time.
Develop our understanding of REM sleep + epilepsy.

Question 76

Types of EEG patterns

Answer 76

Synchronised patterns is a recognised waveform and can be detected:
Alpha waves (light sleep)
Beta waves
Theta waves (deep sleep)
delta waves (deep sleep)
Desynchronised pattern is where no pattern can be detected.

Question 77

Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

Answer 77

Similar to EEG - electrodes attached to scalp. Difference is that a stimulus is presented to a participant and the researchers looks for related activity.
ERPs are difficult to separate from all the background EEP data, so stimulus is presented many times and average response is graphed, called ‘averaging’. This reduced extraneous neural activity and makes specific response stand out.

Question 78

ERPs latency

Answer 78

Time between the presentation of the stimulus and response to referred to as latency. ERPs have a very short latency and have two categories.
Waves that occur within 100 milliseconds are referred to as sensory ERPs. After 100ms are referred to as cognitive ERPs, demonstrate information processing.

Question 79

Evaluation of EEG & ERP

Answer 79

Both non-invasive + cheaper, more patients.
Poor spatial resolution.
Good Temporal Resolution, every millisecond - accurate when looking at specific tasks.

EEG - electrical activity is often detected in several regions of brain simultaneously. Can be difficult to pinpoint exact region.

ERP - more robust, can eliminate extraneous netral activity.

Question 80

Circadian Rhythm

Answer 80

A 24 hour rhythm (body clock) which is reset by levels of light.

Question 81

Sleep-wake cycle

Answer 81

Circadian rhythm
Dictates when we should be asleep and awake.
Light is primary input to system, external cue.
Light is detected by the eye, send message concerning levels of brightness to the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). SCN uses info to coordinate the activity of entire circadian rhythm.
Also determined by homeostasis.

Question 82

Body Temperature

Answer 82

Circadian rhythm
Lowest in early hours of the morning and highest in early evening. Sleep typically occurs when core temperature starts to drop and starts to rise again towards the end of sleep, promoting feelings of alertness first thing in the morning.

Question 83

Evaluating Circadian Rhythms Overview

Answer 83

Research Support
Individual Differences
Temperature may be more important.

Question 84

Evaluating Circadian Rhythms - Research Support

Answer 84

Research on the effect of external cues.
Siffre found that the absence of external significantly altered his circadian rhythm. When he returned from underground stay with no clocks or light, he believes it was a month earlier than it was. Suggest his sleep-wake cycle was increased by lack of external cues.

Question 85

Evaluating Circadian Rhythms - Individual Differences

Answer 85

Important to note differences between individuals when it comes to circadian cycles. Duffy found that ‘morning people’ prefer to rise and go to bed early and ‘evening people’ the opposite. Indicates that there may be innate differences in circadian rhythms, suggests researchers should focus on these differences.