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Science > Biology Part 2 > Flashcards

Biology Part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Organs in the Circulatory System

A

Heart, arteries (aorta), arterioles, veins (vena cava), venules, capillaries, RBC, WBC, platelets, bone marrow stem cells

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2
Q

heart

A
  • A muscular pump that supplies blood to the body
    • Right Atrium: Pumps oxygen poor blood to the right ventricle
    • Right Ventricle: Pumps the oxygen poor blood to the lungs where it becomes oxygenated
    • Left Atrium: Pumps oxygenated blood to the left ventricle
    • Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
  • Contains lots of cardiac muscle
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3
Q

Arteries (aorta):

A
  • Anything that leaves the heart → aorta just means the largest artery in the body
  • Lined with muscular walls to withstand the force of the blood (thick - high blood pressure)
  • Left Pulmonary Artery
    • Carries deoxygenated blood to the left lung where gas exchange takes place
  • Right Pulmonary Artery
    • Carries deoxygenated blood to the right lung where gas exchange takes place
  • Arch of the Aorta
    • Pumps blood to the upper body
  • Descending Aorta
    • Pumps blood to the lower body
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4
Q

Arterioles:

A

Narrow, small blood vessels that branch off the arteries and carry blood to to the tissues and organs

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5
Q

Capillaries:

A

Smallest blood vessels in the body (one cell thick)

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6
Q

Veins (vena cava):

A
  • Anything that enters the heart
  • Thin - lower blood pressure than arteries - have valves
  • Pulmonary veins takes oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium to the heart
  • Vena cava: large vein that carries blood to the heart (superior and inferior)
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7
Q

Venules:

A

The smallest veins that receive oxygen poor blood from the capillaries and deliver it back to the heart

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8
Q

Red Blood Cells:

A

Pick up oxygen in the lungs

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9
Q

White Blood Cells:

A

Locate dangers when travelling through the bloodstream

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10
Q

Bone Marrow Stem Cells:

A

Cells that develop into RBC, WBC, and platelets

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11
Q

Platelets:

A

Prevents and stops bleeding

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12
Q

Order of blood flow

A

Superior and inferior vena cava → right atrium → right ventricle → pulmonary arteries→ through capillaries around alveoli → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left ventricle → aortic arch → arterioles → capillaries (past every cell in the body) → venules → superior and inferior vena cava

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13
Q

cancer screening tests

A

Cancer screening tests aim to find cancer before it causes symptoms and when it may be easier to treat successfully. An effective screening test is one that
- finds cancer early
- reduces the chance that someone who is screened regularly will die from the cancer
- has more potential benefits than harms (possible harms of screening tests include bleeding or other physical damage, false-positive or false-negative test results, and overdiagnosis—the diagnosis of cancers that would not have caused problems and did not need treatment)

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14
Q

5 elements of dna

A

oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus

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15
Q

dna extra info

A
  • DNA has a double helix structure (like a twisted ladder)
    • Helixes coil up and form a chromosome
    • 23 pairs of chromosomes in the body
  • The entire thing is called a adenine nucleotide
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16
Q

carcinogens

A
  • Substances that may increase your risk of developing cancer
  • They are environmental factors that lead to cancer
    • Experts have identified more than 100 carcinogens
  • Physical carcinogens: particles of soft or hard material that are not soluble in water
    • Ultraviolet rays, electromagnetic radiations, corpuscular radiations
  • Chemical carcinogens: substances that seep into cell
    • Asbestos, tobacco smoke, aflatoxin
  • Biological carcinogens: RNA that overtakes cell
    • Bacteria, parasites, infections caused by certain viruses
  • Simply having contact with a carcinogen doesn’t mean you’ll develop cancer. While you may not be able to avoid some carcinogens, there are steps you can take to reduce your risk of developing cancer from carcinogen exposure
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17
Q

Normal Cell Vs. Cancerous Cell

A
  • Normal cells divide and multiply in a controlled manner. Cancerous cells multiply uncontrollably (don’t stay in interphase for long enough)
  • Normal cells are programmed to die (apoptosis). Cancerous cells ignore those directions.
  • Normal cells for solid organs stay put. All cancerous cells are able to move around (metastasis)
  • Normal cells don’t grow as fast as cancerous cells.
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18
Q

tumors

A
  • Rapidly growing mass of cells
  • Benign (not cancerous) versus malignant
    • Benign tumors can get so large they crowd surrounding cells and affect their function, which makes them malignant
  • Body has genes to suppress tumor growth, but they can be manipulated by the cancerous cells
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19
Q

mutations

A
  • Random changes in the DNA
    1. Base-pair substitution: a nucleotide is replaced by a different nucleotide
    2. Insertions: a nucleotide is added to the DNA sequence
    3. Deletions: a nucleotide is removed from the DNA sequence
    4. Inversions: a DNA segment breaks off a chromosome, flips in orientation, and reattaches to the same chromosome
    5. Translocation: movement of DNA segment from one chromosome to another
    6. Duplication: a DNA segment is duplicated, resulting in multiple copies of that DNA segment within that chromosome
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20
Q

cancer screening tests

A

Cancer screening tests aim to find cancer before it causes symptoms and when it may be easier to treat successfully. An effective screening test is one that:
- finds cancer early
- reduces the chance that someone who is screened regularly will die from the cancer
- has more potential benefits than harms (possible harms of screening tests include bleeding or other physical damage, false-positive or false-negative test results, and overdiagnosis—the diagnosis of cancers that would not have caused problems and did not need treatment)

21
Q

the cell cycle

A
  • As cells grow and divide, they move through what’s known as the cell cycle
  • Cells grow and prepare for division during interphase
  • Cells divide during mitosis (division of the contents in the nucleus) and cytokinesis (division of the rest of the cell)
    • Each cell division produces two identical daughter cells
22
Q

interphase

A
  • The longest stage in the cell cycle
    • Cells are still performing their activities (regular & specialized)
    • DNA is in very long, thin, and invisible strands (chromatin)
  • There are three stages: G1, S, and G2
    • G1 = cell growth and development
    • S = DNA in the chromatin replicating
    • G2 = synthesis (production) of organelles
23
Q

chromosomes and chromatin

A
  • A chromosome is a long piece of coiled DNA and proteins
    • Only visible when cell is dividing, otherwise the DNA and proteins are spread throughout the cell in the form of chromatin
    • Each chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids held together by a centromere
24
Q

prophase

A

Early Prophase:
- Chromatin condenses and becomes visible under the microscope as chromosomes
- To enable the movement of chromatids, the nuclear membrane disintegrates
- Centrioles move apart and form asters and spindle fibers

Late Prophase:
- Centrioles and asters are at opposite poles of the cell
- Nuclear membrane has almost completely disappeared
- 46 chromosomes

25
Q

Metaphase

A
  • Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres and line them up at the midline of the cell
  • 46 chromosomes
26
Q

Anaphase

A

Early Anaphase:
- Centromeres split apart
- Sister chromatids separate and are now called daughter chromosomes, which move to opposite poles

Late Anaphase:
- Chromosomes have almost reached their respective poles
- Cell membrane begins to pinch at the centre (cleavage furrow)
- 92 chromosomes

27
Q

Telophase

A
  • Daughter chromosomes stretch out, thin, and are no longer visible
  • New nuclear membrane forms around each group of daughter chromosomes
  • Cell appears to have two nuclei
  • 92 chromosomes
28
Q

Cytokinesis

A
  • Cytoplasm divides, producing two genetically identical daughter cells that have the same structures and chromosomes as the parent cell
    • In animal cells, the cell membrane pinches off at the center
    • In plant cells, plate between daughter cells develop into a new cell wall
  • 46 chromosomes
29
Q

Checkpoints in the Cell Cycle:

A
  • Cells activities are controlled at certain checkpoints, where specialized proteins monitor cell activities and the surroundings, and send messages to the nucleus
  • Nucleus instructs the cell whether or whether not to divide
  • Cell remains in interphase if
    • Signs from surrounding cells tell it not to divide
    • Not enough nutrients to provide for cell growth
    • DNA in the nucleus hasn’t replicated
    • DNA is damaged: if it’s early in the cycle, DNA can be repaired → if its too late, the cell self-destructs (apoptosis)
30
Q

Endoscopy

A
  • An endoscope is made of fiber-optic cable to deliver light, a tiny camera, and a cable that sends the images to a screen
  • The camera lets doctors look for abnormal growths.
  • Used to screen for gastrointestinal cancers (esophageal cancer, colon cancer, etc.), inflammatory bowel disease, etc.
31
Q

X-Rays

A
  • Used to visualize parts of the body such as bones and lungs.
  • A mammogram is a specialized X-ray technique for imaging breast tissue
  • X-rays can cause DNA damage, and are particularly harmful to rapidly dividing cells like those in a growing fetus.
32
Q

Ultrasound Imaging

A
  • Uses ultra-high-frequency sound waves to create a digital image.
  • Digital image allows doctors to view certain soft tissues, such as the heart or the liver
  • Monitoring fetal development during pregnancy
  • Assessing the liver, kidneys, heart, etc. for abnormalities
33
Q

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan:

A
  • Uses radioactive tracers to visualize metabolic processes and functions in the body
  • Tracers are chosen based on their ability to concentrate in specific areas of the body
  • Looking for cancers through increased metabolism, assessing brain function, etc
34
Q

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan:

A
  • Allows X-ray technicians to make multiple X-rays of the body from many angles
  • Images are assembled by computer to form a series of detailed images
  • Allows doctors to view parts of the body that can’t be seen with a conventional X-ray scan
  • Diagnosis of traumatic injuries (fractures, internal bleeding), neurological conditions (e.g. stroke), etc.
35
Q

Magnetic Resource Imaging (MRI):

A
  • Radio waves and strong magnetic fields create images with more detail than a CAT scan
  • Computers can assemble the information into three-dimensional models.
  • CT scans are usually the first choice for imaging. MRIs are useful for certain diseases that CT scans can’t detect, like multiple sclerosis (MS), joint disorders like rheumatoid arthritis (RA), etc.
36
Q

Public Health Screening Initiatives:

A
  • Women over the age of 45 are recommended to get a mammogram every year or every two years.
  • Adults are recommended to get a colonoscopy every 10 years to check for signs of colorectal cancer
  • People are advised to get regular dental X-rays, which can detect periodontal disease, impacted teeth, etc. before they get to more advanced stages
37
Q

Equality Issues with EEGs:

A
  • An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a diagnostic tool for assessing brain function and detecting abnormalities in electrical activity
    • Diagnoses strokes, brain injuries, tumors, etc.
  • The way EEGs are currently designed involves disks that need to have close contact with your scalp.
    • Textured and curly hair, which is the case with a lot of Black people, affects this
38
Q

Equality Issues with MRIs:

A
  • Claustrophobia, overweight, anxiety (loud noises)
    • Open upright MRI helps with claustrophobia as there is more room and a support person can be there
39
Q

Other Inequities:

A

Geographic Disparities: Rural and remote areas often have limited access to advanced medical imaging technologies compared to urban areas.

Socioeconomic Disparities: People with financial constraints, lack of insurance coverage, etc.

40
Q

Differentiation Vs. Specialization:

A
  • Differentiation: The process through which cells become specialized
  • Specialization: Refers to the outcome → the state of being specialized for a particular function or role
  • CELL DIFFERENTIATION LEADS TO CELL SPECIALIZATION
41
Q

Stem Cells

A
  • Undifferentiated cells that can turn into different cell types
  • Two main types: adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells
42
Q

Embryonic Stem Cells:

A
  • Come from blastocysts, which are early-stage embryos
  • They have the potential to differentiate into any type of cell in the body (pluripotent)
  • They can be extracted and grown in a laboratory setting (in a laboratory dish with nutrient-rich liquid)
43
Q

Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells:

A
  • Most studied embryonic stem cells are mouse embryonic stem cells
    • Widely used to make genetically modified mice for medical research
44
Q

Human Embryonic Stem Cells:

A
  • Human embryonic stem cell line was first created in a laboratory in 1998
    • A stem cell line consists of generations of cells that originated from the same parent cells
  • Human embryonic stem cells are thought to be a source of specialized cells for cell therapy
    • Eg. neurons for treating Parkinson’s disease and insulin-secreting pancreatic cells for treating diabetes could be produced from embryonic stem cells
45
Q

how are embryonic stem cells retrieved

A
  • Embryonic stem cells are not retrieved from embryos that develop in the mother’s body, they instead come from embryos in a laboratory through in vitro fertilization (IVF).
  • IVF involves extracting eggs from a woman and fertilizing them with sperm from a man outside the body. When the embryo starts developing, the healthiest one will be implanted into the uterus.
    • Remaining embryos can be frozen for later use, donated to another couple trying to have a baby, destroyed, ….or donated for stem cell research.
  • Ethical issues. Use of human embryonic stem cells is allowed in some countries and banned in others.
46
Q

Adult Stem Cells:

A
  • Can become a limited number of cell types in the body (totipotent)
  • Found in certain tissues, like the lining of the small intestine, parts of the brain, bone marrow, etc.
  • Relatively rare, and hard to grow in large numbers of them in the laboratory.
  • Different types of cells of the blood and immune systems come from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow
47
Q

Bone Marrow Transplants:

A
  • Can be helpful in treating anemia (lack of healthy red blood cells) and leukemias (blood cell cancers).
  • Radiation therapy/chemotherapy destroys bone marrow along with cancer cells
    • Bone marrow transplants are important here.
  • Self-transplantation of bone marrow
48
Q

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT):

A

Another way of getting stem cells

49
Q

what is cell theory

A
  1. cells are the basic unit of life
  2. all living things are made of cells
  3. all cells come from pre-existing cells

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