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Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What is a Cell?

A

A cell is the smallest, basic unit of life. Each cell contains smaller parts called organelles that have special functions that maintain all the life processes of the cell. All living things are made of cells. There are two types of cells: animal and plant. An average cell is 100 um in diameter.

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2
Q

what are the 12 organelles

A

cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles, mitochondria, lysosomes (A), golgi, SER and RER, ribosomes, centrioles (A), cell wall (P), chloroplast (P)

and cytoskeleton - not an organelle

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3
Q

cell membrane

A
  • Every cell has a cell membrane that forms a protective barrier around the cell
  • The cell membrane is made of a double layer of lipids
    - A lipid is a fat-like molecule that does not dissolve in water
  • The cell membrane is designed to allow different substances to move through it (semipermeable)
    - One process for moving substances across the cell membrane is diffusion
    - When a substance is present in different concentrations on either side of the cell membrane, the particles diffuse from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration
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4
Q

cytoplasm

A
  • Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles
    -The organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm
  • Cytoplasm contains the nutrients required by the cell to carry on its life processes
  • The physical nature of the cytoplasm allows the nutrients and organelles to move within the cell
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5
Q

nucleus

A
  • The control centre organelle of the cell, controlling all the activities in a cell, including growth and reproduction
  • The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope, which contains pores to allow the transport of materials to go in and out
  • Most nuclei also contain a small dense area called the nucleolus
  • The nucleus contains nearly all of the cell’s DNA. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
    - DNA is very important to the cell because it contains the coded information for making proteins and other molecules. It also guides the growth, development, and functioning of living organisms.
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6
Q

vacuoles

A
  • Vacuoles and vesicles (smaller vacuoles) are membrane-bound organelles/sacs that store nutrients, wastes, and other substances used by the cell
  • In plant cells, the central vacuole stores water for the cell
    - When water enters the cell, the central vacuole swells, causing the plant cell to become firm
  • Vesicles transport substances throughout the cell
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7
Q

mitochondria

A
  • All cells require a source of energy: mitochondria supply that energy and is the powerhouse of the cell
  • Have a double membrane with finger-like cristae
  • Reactions occur in these organelles to convert the chemical energy in sugar into energy that the cell can use
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8
Q

lysosomes (A)

A
  • Where digestion takes place
  • They are small organelles that are filled with digestive enzymes to break down the things the cell doesn’t need
    - An enzyme is a protein that can speed up chemical reactions in the cell
  • Lysosomes also break down invading bacteria and damaged cell organelles
  • Essentially, they work as the clean-up system in the cell
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9
Q

golgi apparatus

A
  • Receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum
  • Modifies, sorts, and packages these proteins for delivery throughout the cell or outside of the cell.
  • Looks like a stack of flattened membranes
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10
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • Made of a series of interconnected small tubes that carry materials through the cell
  • Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), a series of folded membrane spotted with ribosomes, is associated with making proteins
    - Ribosomes are small, dense-looking organelles that may be attached to the RER or free in the cytoplasm
    - Ribosomes are where proteins are made
  • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is associated with the production of fats and oils
    - Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes
    - Forms containers called transport vesicles that are used to move things around inside the cell
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11
Q

cytoskeleton

A
  • It is an internal network of fibres made up of protein filaments
  • It helps maintain the cell’s shape
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12
Q

centrosome & centrioles

A
  • coordinates movement of chromosomes during mitosis
  • help maintain cell shape and structure
  • ANIMALS ONLY
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13
Q

cell wall

A
  • The cell wall is a rigid frame around the cell that provides strength, protection, and support
  • PLANTS ONLY
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14
Q

chloroplast

A
  • Contain a green substance called chlorophyll
    - Chlorophyll uses energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis.
  • The chloroplast is made up of little sacs known as thylakoids
    - Thylakoids are stacked together in a way that resembles a stack of coins.
    - They are surrounded by a thick fluid called stroma.
    - A stack of thylakoids is called a granum; chloroplasts may have many grana.
    - Known as being “solar collectors” because they collect light energy from the Sun, which is used during the process of photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates.
    - The carbohydrates are used for the growth of the plant.
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15
Q

Differences between Plant and Animal Cells:
(6)

A
  1. Cell walls and chloroplasts are only found in plant cells.
  2. Plant cells contain a specialized chemical compound called chlorophyll, a pigment that makes photosynthesis possible.
  3. Plant cells have a large central vacuole. Vacuoles in animal cells tend to be small.
  4. Some plant cells store energy in the form of starch or oils, such as cornstarch and canola oil. Animal cells store energy in the form of glycogen, a carbohydrate, or as lipids in the form of fats.
  5. Animal cells have centrioles. Plant cells do not have centrioles.
  6. P form cell plate during mitosis!
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16
Q

Virus Vs. Bacteria:

A
  • Bacteria are single-celled, living organisms
  • Do not depend on a host to reproduce
  • Treated with antibiotics
  • Bigger than viruses →diameter of 1000 nm
  • Viruses are tiny, infectious particles
  • Only reproduces by infecting a host cell (and are therefore not considered living)
  • Not a cell, just packages of nucleic acid and protein
  • 20-300 nm
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17
Q

study animal & plant cell diagrams + practice labelling

A
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18
Q

what is tissue

A

A group of cells that function together as a unit.

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19
Q

what is an organ

A

A group of tissues that structurally form a functional unit specialized to perform a particular function.

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20
Q

biological organization

A

(Atoms/Macromolecules) → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

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21
Q

what are the 6 specialized cells

A
  1. RBC
  2. WB
  3. Nerve cell (axon)
  4. Cells in the trachea (goblet cells)
  5. Sperm cells
  6. Muscle cells
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22
Q

RBC

A
  • No nucleus
  • Carries oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂)
  • Shape allows it to flow smoothly in blood vessels
  • Made in bone marrow
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23
Q

WBC

A

Receptor on surface helps cell to recognize invaders

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24
Q

Nerve Cell (axon)

A
  • Long “body” of cell allows for fast transmission
  • The many “arms” allow for many functions
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25
Q

cells in trachea (goblet cells)

A
  • Cilia (hair) can trap and move dust
  • Cells produce mucus to trap dust
  • Tall, can pack a lot
  • cystic fibrosis
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26
Q

sperm cells

A
  • Shape of head allows it to move/swim effectively
  • Tail allows motion
  • Many mitochondria give energy for swimming
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27
Q

muscle cells

A
  • Longer cells that are bundled together so they can contract with force
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28
Q

what are the 4 main tissues in animals

A

epithelial, muscle, connective, nerve

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29
Q

Epithelial Tissue:

A
  • Made of cells that are tightly packed together to form a protective barrier (one cell thick or contain several layers)
  • Lines body cavities and outer surface of body
  • Forms glands that produce hormones, enzymes, and sweat
  • The 3 types: squamous, cuboidal, or columnar
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30
Q

muscle tissue

A
  • Allows for movement by contracting and relaxing
  • The 3 types: cardiac (in the heart - involuntary), smooth (blood vessels, stomach, organs - involuntary), and skeletal (voluntary)
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31
Q

connective tissue

A
  • Joins other tissues together, supports and protects structures
  • Types: tendons (muscles to bones), ligaments (bones to bones), bones, cartilage, and blood, fat cells
    - Blood is made of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (cells that help in the process of blood clotting)
  • Forms blood, stores fat, fills empty space
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32
Q

nerve tissue

A
  • Made of nerve cells
  • Responds to stimuli (helps you feel pain)
  • Transmits and stores information
  • Ex. brain’s neurons
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33
Q

The 4 Main Tissues in Plants:

A

epidermal, vascular, ground, meristematic

34
Q

Epidermal Tissue:

A
  • Forms the protective outer covering
  • Allows the exchange of materials and gases into and out of the plant
  • On the top and underside of the leaf, clear and very thin
    - Specialized guard cells form a tiny opening, or pore, called a stomate, that allows carbon dioxide, water vapor, and oxygen to move into or out of the leaf easily.
    - Most stomata are found on the underside of the leaf.
35
Q

Vascular Tissue:

A
  • There are two types: xylem and phloem
    - Xylem is responsible for the movement of water and minerals from the roots up the stem to the leaves, where these substances are used in photosynthesis.
    - Phloem transports the sugar produced during photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant, where it is used to provide energy for all cellular processes.
36
Q

ground tissue

A
  • Most of the plant is made up ground tissue
  • In the stem: provides strength and support
  • In the roots: stores food and water
  • In the leaves: where photosynthesis occurs
37
Q

Meristematic Tissue:

A
  • Unspecialized tissue capable of dividing by mitosis
  • Found in several locations in the plant
  • Responsible for growing new parts of the plant
38
Q

Things to Know How to Draw:

A
  1. DNA Molecule
  2. Cell
  3. Tissue
  4. Epithelial Tissues (squamous, columnar, cuboidal)
  5. Muscle Tissue and Muscle Cells
  6. Nerve Tissue and Nerve Cells
  7. RBC, WBC,
    platelets, fat cells
  8. Connective Tissues (cartilage, bone, tendons, ligaments)
  9. Plant Organs + Their Tissues (leaf, stem, root)
39
Q

name everything involved in the digestive system (in order)

A
  1. mouth/teeth
  2. salivary glands ***
  3. pharynx
  4. epiglottis
  5. esophagus
  6. stomach
  7. pancreas ***
  8. liver ***
  9. gallbladder ***
  10. small intestine
  11. large intestine
  12. rectum/anus

extra:
hormones
sphincters
appendix

40
Q

Oral Cavity (Mouth/Teeth):

A
  • Breaks down food into smaller pieces for digestion
  • Teeth have specialties (front teeth tear off food, molars grind the food, etc.)
41
Q

Salivary Glands ***:

A
  • While chewing, these gland create saliva
    • Enzymes in the saliva break down any starch in the food
    • With chewing, it helps turn the food into a moist lump called the bolus
  • Produces about 1.5 litres of saliva per day
42
Q

Pharynx:

A

Acts as a passageway for food and liquid to enter the esophagus

43
Q

Epiglottis:

A

Folds backward to cover the entrance of the larynx so food and liquid do not enter the windpipe and lungs
- connective tissue: cartilage

44
Q

Esophagus:

A
  • 25cm long tube
  • Transports food from the mouth to the stomach
  • Nerves in the esophagus sense the bolus and trigger peristalsis, a series of defined muscle contractions that propels the food into the stomach
45
Q

Stomach:

A
  • The muscular stomach walls bound the bolus, breaking it into chunks
  • Hormones, secreted by cells in the lining of the stomach, trigger the release of acids and enzyme-rich juices that start to dissolve the food and break down its proteins
  • These hormones alert the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder to produce digestive juices and transfer bile, which helps digest fat
  • After 3 hours, the bolus is now a frothy liquid called chyme, and it moves to the small intestine
46
Q

Pancreas ***:

A
  • Creates natural juices called pancreatic enzymes to break down foods
  • They empty into the duodenum
47
Q

Liver ***:

A

Produces bile and sends it to the gallbladder

48
Q

Gallbladder ***:

A
  • Stores bile
  • Secretes the bile into the first portion of the small intestine (duodenum)
49
Q

Small Intestine:

A
  • The bile in the duodenum from the gallbladder dissolves fats in the chyme so they can be easily digested by the pancreatic and intestinal juices
  • Deconstructs proteins into amino acids and carbohydrates into glucose (happening in the jejunum and ileum)
  • Coated in millions of tiny projections called villi, which maximize absorption
  • main function is absorption
50
Q

Large Intestine:

A
  • Left over fiber, water, and dead cells make it here
  • The body drains out most of the remaining fluid through the intestinal wall and leaves stool
    - The intestine pushes it to the rectum
    - Ascending, transverse, descending
51
Q

Rectum/Anus:

A

Rectum receives waste from the large intestine and stores it until it passes out of the body through the anus (a sphincter)

52
Q

Hormones:

A

Regulate secretion, absorption and digestion, and gut motility

53
Q

Sphincters:

A
  • A ring shaped muscle that relaxes or tightens to open or close a passage in the body
  • Regulates food passing from the esophagus to the stomach, and prevents it from entering the esophagus
  • Sphincter at the bottom of the stomach governs food into the small intestine
54
Q

Appendix:

A
  • Small pouch attached to the large intestine
  • Produces and stores good bacteria
55
Q

Things to Know (digestive system)

A
  • how to label the different parts
56
Q

what does *** mean (DS)

A

several important organs that are needed for proper digestion. The food does not go through these organs, but instead they add to the food.

57
Q

Rules for Scientific Notation

A
  • first number has to be between 1 and 10 –> cannot be 10, can be 1
  • use the specialized calculator button
58
Q

Things to Know (math)

A
  • Unit Conversions
  • Scientific Notation
59
Q

parts of the microscope (14):

A

see notes

60
Q

total magnification

A

Ocular Magnification x
Objective Magnification

  • Ex. Ocular lens with a magnification of 10x and highest objective magnification of 40x → 400x
61
Q

Field Diameter (in micrometers)

A

Field diameter (in mm) x 10^3

62
Q

other equation for microscope

A

Medium Power Field Diameter/ Low Power Field Diameter = Low Power (total) Magnification/Medium Power (total) Magnification

Ex. Low power magnification of 4x and medium power magnification of 10x. If the field of view is 1300 um under low power, what is the field of view under medium power?
x/1300 = 4/10

63
Q

contrast

A

The difference in light intensity between the image and the adjacent background relative to the overall background intensity.

64
Q

resolution

A

Resolution (resolving power) is the ability to distinguish between two objects that are very close together.

65
Q

Electron Microscope:

A
  • uses a beam of electrons instead of light
  • an electron microscope cannot be used to look at living cells — only dead cells
  • A photograph taken through either a TEM (transmission electron microscope) or an SEM (scanning electron microscope) is called an electron micrograph.
  • provides detailed information the cell
66
Q

rules for drawing correct biological diagrams

A
  1. draw only what u observe and use only pencil
  2. title goes in top left corner, total magnification goes in bottom right corner
  3. drawing goes in circle on left, horizontal (ruler) labes on RIGHT
  4. labels do not cross
  5. stipple
67
Q

plant organs

A

leaf, stem, root

68
Q

name organs in the respiratory system

A

mouth/nose, trachea, bronchi/bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm, lungs, pleural cavity, intercostal muscles

69
Q

diff between pharynx, larynx, and trachea (+where does epiglottis go??)

A

ya u stupid

70
Q

mouth/nose

A
  • Air enters through the nose or the mouth
  • It moistens and warms the air since cold, dry air can irritate the lungs
  • The nose filters the air (cilia), but the mouth does not
71
Q

trachea

A
  • Tube below the throat (larynx & pharynx) that connects the larynx to the bronchi
  • Reliable pathway for oxygen to enter body (and release carbon dioxide)
  • Made of rings of cartilage that keep it airtight and safe from collapsing
  • Goblet cells
72
Q

Bronchi/Bronchioles

A
  • The bronchi (left bronchus & right bronchus) are the main airways that carry air to the lungs
  • Lined with goblet cells to create mucus that keeps the airways moist
  • Bronchi branch off into bronchioles and then to the alveoli (where gas exchange occurs)
73
Q

Alveoli

A
  • Where the gas exchange occurs
  • Happens through a process called diffusion
  • Located at the very end of the bronchioles
  • Microscopic balloon shaped structures
74
Q

Diaphragm

A
  • A muscle that helps with inhaling and exhaling
  • Sits below the lungs
  • Contracts (moves down abdomen) while inhaling, which allows the chest to get bigger and pull in more air
  • Relaxes (curves back up) while exhaling, which allows the lungs to push the air out
75
Q

Lungs

A
  • Transports oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
  • Lined by a pleural cavity (membrane) which keeps the lungs airtight
76
Q

Intercostal Muscles

A
  • found between the ribs
  • pull down on the rib cage
  • hold everything in place
77
Q

Gas Exchange in Detail

A
  • After breathing in, air flows into the alveoli
  • Through diffusion, O2 moves out of the alveoli into the venules
    • The venules (blood vessels) supply oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
    • Alveolus are oxygen rich (red)
  • CO2 is moving out of the capillaries (smallest blood vessels) into the alveoli
    • The CO2 is then breathed out
    • Capillaries collect the deoxygenated blood and are oxygen poor (blue)
78
Q

things to know (respiratory system)

A

Nasal passage
Pharynx and larynx/voice box (throat)
Trachea
Left and right bronchus
Left and right bronchial tree
Left and right lung
Diaphragm
Pleural cavity
Intercostal muscles

79
Q

nucleolus

A
  • produces ribosomes and ribosomal RNA, which are crucial for protein formation
80
Q

importance of mitosis

A
  1. healing/repair
  2. regeneration (asexual)
  3. growth
  4. replace (dead cells)

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