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Boiology cram > Biology paper 2 module 6 cuh > Flashcards

Biology paper 2 module 6 cuh Flashcards

1
Q

How do we calculate the efficiency of biomass transferred?

A

Efficiency = biomass transferred/Biomass intake x100

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2
Q

How can humans manipulate the transfer of biomass through ecosystems?

A
  1. Restricting the movement of animals
  2. Providing animals with higher energy food
  3. Keeping animals indoors to reduce energy transferred as heat
  4. Removing competition and predators
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3
Q

What is succession?

A

The change in an ecological community over time

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4
Q

How does primary succession start?

A

Pioneer species colonises bare land surface, through the species death and decomposition, the abiotic factors become less harsh

Mosses and smaller plants can now survive. They further increase the depth and nutrient content of the soil. This pattern continues as abiotic factors become less harsh

Happens until we reach climax community

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5
Q

effects of succession?

A

Species richness and number of organisms increase so biodiversity increases.

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6
Q

What is deflected succession?

A

Human activities prevent the progress of succession.

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7
Q

How do we do deflected succession?

A

Controlled burning, removal of vegetation.

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8
Q

How do we maintain earlier stages of succession/ manage sustainability

A

Coppacing/pollarding

Cutting trees close to the ground

provides timber but the plant is able to regrow and recover

In larger scales, larger trees are removed and new trees are replanted

Sustainable fishing:

Limit quantity of fish caught

Increase size of holes on nets

Not allow fishing during mating season

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9
Q

What is interspecific competition?

A

Members of a different species are competing for the same resources

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10
Q

What is intraspecific competition

A

Members of the same species are in competition for the same resources.

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11
Q

What is conservation?

A

Human actions are used to manage biodiversity

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12
Q

What is preservation?

A

Protecting an area by banning visitors

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13
Q

when will transcription of a gene occur?

A

When a molecule from the cytoplasm enters the nucleus and binds to the DNA in the nucleus

These molecules are proteins called transcription factors and each one can bind to different base sequences on DNA, initiating the transcription of genes

Once bound, transcription begins, creating mRNA that can be translated in the cytoplasm to create the protein

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14
Q

What does the lac operon do?

A

Aid lactose digestion

Bacteria prefer to digest glucose than lactose

If no glucose, lactose will be digested.

The proteins produced by the lac operon are only needed if glucose is absent and lactose is present

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15
Q

How does lac operon work

A

When lactose is absent, a repressor protein is constantly produced and binds to the operator, prevents RNA polymerase from binding to the DNA at the promoter region

If lactose present, Lactose binds to repressor protein and causes it to change shape. Change in shape prevents the repressor protein from binding to the operator so RNA polymerase can bind to the promoter and transcription occurs

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16
Q

What does increased methylation of DNA do

A

Inhibits transcription, when methyl groups get added, they attach to cytosine base preventing transcriptional factors from binding.

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17
Q

What is acetylation of histone proteins?

A

Decreased acetylation of histones on DNA inhibits transcription

If acetyl groups are removed from the DNA, histones become more positive and are attracted more to the phosphate group on DNA

This makes DNA and histones more strongly associated, making it harder for transcription factors to bind.

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18
Q

What is speciation?

A

When a population of a species become reproductively isolated.

This results in the accumulation of differences in their gene pools.

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19
Q

What are the two different types of speciation?

A

Allopatric:
- Geographical isolation

Sympatric:
- Changes in reproductive mechanism

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20
Q

How do we sequence DNA

A
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21
Q

How has DNA sequencing helped us

A

Identifying the source of an infection

Identifying antibiotic resistant bacteria

Tracking the spread of pathogens

Identifying regions in genome for new drugs to treat

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22
Q

What are VNTRs used for

A

Identifying how closely related someone is to you through the use of genetic fingerprinting

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23
Q

What is the process of Genetic Fingerprinting

A

1) Collection: Collect a sample of DNA , PCR is used to amplify the amount of DNA

2) Restriction endonucleases are added to cut DNA into smaller fragments

3) DNA samples loaded into small wells in agar gel, gel placed in buffer liquid and electrical voltage is applied. DNA is negatively charged so DNA samples move through the gel towards the positive end of the gel. Alkaline gets added to separate the double strands of DNA

4) DNA probes hybridise DNA, probes are fluorescently labelled

5) Agar gel will shrink and crack as it dries, VNTRs and DNA probes are transferred to a nylon sheet. Nylon sheet exposed to UV light

6) Positions of DNA bands are compared to identify genetic relationships, etc

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24
Q

What are post transcriptional changes?

A

mRNA modification:
Removal of introns (sequences of bases that don’t code for amino acids)

Addition of protective caps to 5’ and 3’ tails.

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25
Q

What are homeobox genes?

A

Sequences of genes which create proteins that regulate the expression of other genes that are involved in the formation of the body as an embryo

26
Q

What are Hox genes

A

A type of homeobox gene, responsible for correct development and positioning of body parts

27
Q

What is Apoptosis?

A

Programmed cell death

28
Q

How do we prevent tumours from forming?

A

Cell cycle controlled by genes that ensure new cells only made when needed, tumour suppressor gene is responsible for making proteins that stop the cell cycle. If an error is detected in a cell or it is too old to function, apoptosis occurs.

29
Q

How are mitosis and apoptosis regulated?

A

Hox genes, genes that regulate the cell cycle and apoptosis are impacted by external and internal stimuli

30
Q

What do you need to test for T test?

A

Continues data and investigating a difference between two means

31
Q

What do you need for Chi Squared?

A

Frequencies, and investigating a difference

32
Q

What is the Chi squared formula?

A

(Observed - Expected)^2 / Expected

33
Q

What are P, Q, P^2, Q^2 and 2PQ in the hardy weinberg?

A

p = Frequency of dominant allele
q = frequency of the recessive allele
p^2 = Frequency of homozygous dominant genotype
2pq = Frequency of Heterozygous genotype
q^2 = Frequency of homozygous recessive genotype

34
Q

What are the two different types of speciation?

A

Allopatric - Geographical

Sympatric - Differences of behaviour

35
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

Change in allele frequency within a population between gene

36
Q

Genetic finger printing

A

Sample of DNA collected and extracted
Restriction endonucleases added, cut DNA to smaller fragments
DNA samples loaded into small wells in agar gel, voltage applied. This separates longer DNA from smaller VNTRs
Alkaline gets added, DNA separated into single strands
DNA probes added, and get fluorescently labelled.
Transferred to nylon sheet and observed

36
Q

What is the difference between genetic bottle neck and the founder effect?

A

Genetic bottle neck occurs due to changes in the environment and founder when a small amount of population migrates away

36
Q

How is PCR done?

A

Temperature increased to 95, breaks hydrogen bonds and splits DNA into single strands

Temperature gets decreased to 55, primers attach

DNA polymerase attaches complementary free nucleotides making a new strand of DNA. Temperature increased to 72

36
Q

What are some advantages of PCR?

A

Automated - more efficient
Rapid - 100 Billion copies made within hours
Doesn’t require living cells

37
Q

Benefits and negatives of Genetic engineering in plants

A

Higher yield, some technology is patented and buying seeds can be expensive

37
Q

Why is conservation important?

A

Ethical: All organisms have a right to live, conservation helps to ensure humans are not preventing this

Social: Enjoying outdoors provides physical and mental benefits to people

Economic: Many medicines, foods, clothes are sourced from natural ecosystems

37
Q

What are factors affecting population size

A

Abiotic factors:
Temperature, oxygen, CO2 concentration, light intensity, pH

Biotic factors:
Interspecific and intraspecific

37
Q

What is interspecific competition?

A

When members of a different species are in competition for the same resource

37
Q

What is intraspecific competition?

A

When members of the same species are in competition for resources and a mate.

37
Q

What is succession?

A

Change in ecological community over time

37
Q

Secondary succession

A

When primary succession gets disrupted, successions starts again but not from the bare rock stage

37
Q

Conservation and preservation

A

Conservation: Human actions and management to maintain biodiversity

Preservation: Banning visitors to protect an ecosystem

38
Q

How do you clone a houseplant?

A

take a small cutting from the plant, dip base in rooting powder. Once new roots form, place cutting into soil

39
Q

What is micropropagation?

A

Making large numbers of genetically identical offspring

Used when plant doesn’t rapidly reproduce seeds, doesn’t response well to natural cloning, is very rare

MUST BE PATHOGEN FREE

40
Q

How is micropropagation performed?

A

Small sample of plant tissue taken
Sterilise sample and remove material off sample (Becomes explant at this stage)
Explant placed in sterile culture medium with plant hormones that promote growth, this forms a callus.
Callus gets divided up, transferred to a new culture medium to stimulate development, forms genetically identical plantlets.
Plantlets potted in compost , then planted and grown when they’re reach a suitable size.

41
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of micropropagation?

A

ADVANTAGES:
Allows for rapid production of plants
Produces disease free plants
Produce seedless plants
Way to grow naturally infertile plants

DISADVANTAGES:
Produces a monoculture (reduces biodiversity)
Expensive
Explants and plantlets vulnerable to infection
If source material is compromised, all other source clones will get infected

42
Q

Cloning in invertebrates

A

Animal with desirable offspring’s selected and is treated with hormones to ovulate
Eggs get removed and fertilised
When cells are totipotent, they split into several smaller embryos
Embryos grow in a lab for a couple days then get planted in a surrogate mother

43
Q

What is somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

Taking the nucleus from an adult somatic cell and transferring it to an enucleated egg cell.

44
Q

What is the process of SCNT?

A

Nucleus is removed from somatic cell of adult animal
Nucleus removed from ovum of different female animal
Nucleus from adult somatic cell gets placed in enucleated ovum
Embryo that develops gets transferred to the uterus of a third animal, new animal is a clone from where the original somatic cell comes from

45
Q

Pros and Cons of SCNT?

A

ADVANTAGES:
Enables high yield animals to produce many more offspring
Enables the success of passing on a desirable gene
Enables GM embryos to be replicated
Extinct or rare animals can be brought to life

DISADVANTAGES:
SCNT is very inefficient
Many embryos fail to develop
Many cloned animals have shorter lifespans

46
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology?

A

ADVANTAGES:
Microbes grow rapidly
Can be genetically engineered
Products produce are purer
Grow at a low temp (Cost effective)

DISADVANTAGES:
Can produce toxins if grown incorrectly
Must be grown in aseptic conditions

47
Q

What are some examples of Aseptic techniques

A

Sterilise all equipment
Sterilise work surface
Wash hands with soap
Work near a bunsen burner (Sterilise air)

48
Q

What is the formula for number of individual organisms?

A

N = N0 x 2^n

N0 = initial number
n = number of divisions

49
Q

What are alternatives to using microorganisms?

A

Immobilised enzymes

50
Q

Advantages and Disadvantages of immobilised enzymes?

A

Easily reusable, High upfront costs

51
Q

Name the microorganism for all this yip yap:

Alcohol
Baking
Cheese making
Yoghurt making

A

Alcohol: Yeast
Baking: Yeast
Cheese making: Bacteria
Yoghurt making: Bacteria

Boiology cram (8 decks)

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