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Boiology cram > Biology paper 2 cuh > Flashcards

Biology paper 2 cuh Flashcards

1
Q

How do disease do harm?

A

Directly damaging tissue or through releasing toxins

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2
Q

Name some bacterial diseases?

A

Tuberculosis, bacterial meningitis. ring rot

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3
Q

Name some viral diseases

A

HIV/AIDS, influenza, TMV

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4
Q

Name protocista diseases

A

Black sigatoka, ringworm. athletes foot

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5
Q

How does gram staining differentiate between gram negative and gram positive bacteria?

A

Gram Positive: Purple blue under microscope
Gram negative: Red under microscope

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6
Q

Why is gram staining usefull?

A

Reveals how bacteria react to different antibiotics

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7
Q

Facts about viruses

A

Non Living
Acellular
Only replicate inside of the hosts cells
Can infect bacteria

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8
Q

Facts about Protoctista

A

Eukaryotes
Single celled or cells grouped into colonies
Parasites
Transmitted via vectors

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9
Q

Facts about Fungi

A

Eukaryotes, cause many plant diseases
Multicellular or single celled
Parasitic, releases enzymes to digest hosts tissues

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10
Q

Living conditions that make transmission easier

A
  • Hot climates: More K.E for chemical reactions/reproduction
  • Social factors (Poverty): Poorer sewage, lack of fresh water and food, poorer sanitation and overcrowded living araeas, medicine less available
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11
Q

Modes of transmissions for animals

A

Direct transmission
Direct contact - touching, kissing, contact with cuts and sexual contact
Inoculation - Animal bites, sharing needles
Ingestion of contaminated water or food

Indirect transmission:

Vectors - Animals passing on the disease to humans
Droplets - Pathogens transmitted in droplets
Fomites - Dirty bedding, socks, cosmetics

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12
Q

Modes of transmissions for plants

A

Direct:

Direct contact different plants

Indirect:

Contaminating soil - Pathogens and spores remaining in soil, infecting roots of subsequent plants
Vectors - Wind, water, animals and humans

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13
Q

Plant responses to pathogens

A

Barriers to prevent entry, Bark/Waxy cuticle
Antibacterial chemicals and proteins as a defence against bacterial infections
Physical defences to prevent pathogens from spreading

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14
Q

Animal responses to pathogen

A

Primary line of defence: Non-Specific

Skin
Blood clots
Mucous membrane
Lysozymes
Expulsive reflexes such as sneezing, coughing, vomiting
Inflammation occurs in localised areas - histamines released and cytokines

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15
Q

What do histamines do

A

Causes blood vessels to dilate, more blood flow to the area, increased temperature to kill pathogens. Also make walls of blood vessels more permeable so more WBC can be delivered to the site of damage

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16
Q

What do cytokines do?

A

Attract phagocytes to engulf and destroy pathogens

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17
Q

What are different types of phagocytes?

A

Macrophage and neutrophil

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18
Q

What is an opsonin

A

an antibody or other substance which binds to foreign microorganisms or cells making them more susceptible to phagocytosis.

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19
Q

What is the process of phagocytosis?

A
  1. Damaged cells and pathogens release cytokines that attract phagocytes to the site of infection
  2. Opsonin can attach to pathogens to mark them and make it easier for phagocytes to engulf
  3. Phagocyte receptors which can attach onto the chemical surface of pathogens
  4. Phagocyte engulfs the pathogen into a vesicle creating a phagosome
  5. Lysosome fuses with phagosome, exposing the pathogen to lysosome, hydrolysing it
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20
Q

What do lymphocytes do and where are they made?

A

They are a specific response to antigens, Two types being B Lymph and T lymph. B Cells created in bone marrow but T cells mature in thymus

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21
Q

What do T- Cells do

A

Receptors on T cells bind to Antigen-presenting cells
Causes T cells to divide rapidly via mitosis

22
Q

Cell mediated response

A

One pathogen gets engulfed and destroyed, Phagocyte will put antigen on cell and become an antigen presenting cell

T Helper cells have receptors on their surface which can attach to the antigens on APC

One attached, interleukins are produced which activates the T Helper cells to divide by mitosis

These cloned T cells differentiate into different cells

23
Q

What is a T killer cell

A

Cell that can destroy abnormal/infected cells with antigens on them

24
Q

What is the humoral response

A

T helper cells stimulate B cells via interleukin production

Initiates the humoral response, which involves antibodies

25
Q

How do antibodies help destroy pathogens

A

Agglutination (Clumping pathogens together making them easier to locate and engulf them), marking pathogens, anti-toxins.

26
Q

What is the process of the Humoral response

A

Activated T Helper cells bind to B cell with complementary antibody to antigens.

Release of interleukins from T helper cell activate B cell

B Cell divides rapidly, making clones that differentiate into memory B cells or Plasma cells. This is clonal expansion

Plasma cells produce antibodies, they attach to antigens on pathogen that destroy them. (agglutination or marking them)

B memory cells remain in blood after infection and can rapidly produce large amounts of antibodies if there is an infection with the same pathogen

27
Q

Name the types of immunity

A

Passive:
- Antibodies are introduced into the body
- Pathogen doesn’t enter the body so plasma cells and memory cells aren’t made

Active:
- Involves exposure to the pathogen/antigen
Two types: Natural and artificial
Natural:
- Following infection, the body creates its own antibodies
Artificial:
Following the introduction of a weakened version of the pathogen or antigens via a vaccine

28
Q

Cell recognition

A

Cells are labelled with a protein to allow recognition
each of the body cells are labelled with a unique shaped protein that lymphocytes recognise as ‘self’ cells.

Any other type of protein detected on the surface is recognised as ‘non-self’ and is destroyed

29
Q

What is an autoimmune disease?

A

When your immune system identifies your own cells as ‘foreign’
Results in your white blood cells attacking your own body cells

Two examples are Arthritis and Lupus

30
Q

What are the different types of immunity

A

Passive Immunity:
Antibodies are injected directly into you to help destroy the pathogen

Artificial Active Immunity:
Antigens or small amounts of a inactive/dead pathogen are injected.
These trigger a primary immune response but with few symptoms, so if you’re reinfected it will rapidly produce antibodies as the secondary immune response.

31
Q

What is an epidemic?

A

When a disease spreads on a national level

32
Q

What is a pandemic?

A

When a disease spreads rapidly on a global level

33
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When a large enough amount of a population gets vaccinated, it is unlikely that a susceptible individual will encounter an infected individual.

34
Q

What is species diversity?

A

Number of different species within a community

35
Q

What is genetic diversity?

A

The variety of genes amongst all the individuals in a population of one species

36
Q

What is habitat diversity?

A

The range of different habitats

37
Q

What is species richness?

A

The number of different species in a particular area at a particular time

38
Q

How can genetic diversity be reduced?

A
  • Captive Breeding
    Only small number of individuals breeding –> limited gene pool
  • Genetic bottlenecks
    When a small number of a population survive an event –> gene pool decreased as only alleles remaining can be passed onto future offspring.
  • Founder effect
    When a small number migrate to a isolated area –> likely to get inbreeding
39
Q

What is a polymorphic gene?

A

A gene that has more than one allele

40
Q

How is genetic diversity calculated?

A

Proportion of polymorphic gene loci = Number of polymorphic gene loci / total number of loci

41
Q

How is random sampling conducted?

A

Lay out two tape measures at right angles to eachother to create a gridded area

Use a random number generator to generate two numbers to serve as coordinates on the grid

Place your quadrat at the coordinates and record the data

42
Q

What are the types of Non random sampling

A

Opportunistic, stratified, systematic.

43
Q

What is opportunistic sampling

A

Sample organisms that are conveniently available

44
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Dividing the population into subgroups then selecting a sample from each of these groups

45
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Identify different areas within a habitat to sample, then measure the change in distribution of species via using a belt transect.

46
Q

What are some sampling techniques for animals?

A

Sweeping nets
Pitfall traps
Pooters (capture small insects)
Tullgren funnel (extract organisms within soil samples)
Kick sampling (kicking river bed to disturb organisms)

47
Q

What are factors affecting biodiversity?

A

Human population:
Increased need for housing, farming and industry

Agriculture:
Increased agriculture to feed everyone, need to clear land destroying habitats. Chemical pesticides or fertilisers also being added to the land growing monoculture.

Climate change:
Increase in global temps are melting polar ice caps, therefore destroying habitats. It is also resulting in sea levels rising, which is reducing biodiversity due to flooding. The higher global temperatures and lower rainfall mean that some plants and animals aren’t able to survive and Xerophytes are becoming the dominant species

48
Q

What are some reasons to maintain biodiversity?

A

Ecological:
All organisms are interdependent, loss of one species impacts all others.

Economical:
Deforestation can result in soil erosion, monocultures can result in soil becoming deficient in
Tourism relies on people visiting areas of natural beauty
Medicines have been based on chemicals in plants

Aesthetical:
Being in nature and around animals and plants enriches people’s lives.
Serves as creative inspiration for art and improves peoples mental health

49
Q

What are methods of maintaining biodiversity?

A

In situ: within natural habitat
Genetic diversity maintained
All species will benefit from it as all interconnected
Examples: marine conservation zones, wildlife reserve

Ex situ: Not within natural habitat
Example: Botanical gardens, seed banks and captive breeding

50
Q
A

Boiology cram (8 decks)

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