Biology & Immunology Flashcards by Alicia Daum

4 Bases of DNA

Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine

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Transcription

Process for DNA to RNA via RNA polymerase

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Translation

Process from mRNA to strand of amino acids which forms a protein

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Essential Amino Acids

Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine
Arginine*
Cysteine*
Glutamine*
Pyrrolysine*
Proline*
Selenocysteine*
Serine*
Tyrosine*

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Which cells don’t proliferate after birth?

Nerve cells
Muscle cells
Cardiac cells

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Which cells are capable of self-renewal?

Stem cells

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2 Types of Growth Factors

Stimulate cell division

Inhibit cell division

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Cell Cycle Phases

G0
G1
S
G2
M

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Define G0 Phase

A resting phase where the cell has left the cycle & has stopped dividing

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Define G1 Phase

Cells increase in size

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What is the G1 checkpoint?

Control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis

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Define S Phase

DNA replication occurs during this phase

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Define G2 Phase

Gap between DNA synthesis & mitosis

Cell continues to grow

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What is the G2 checkpoint?

Control mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M phase & divide

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Define M

Cell growth stops at this stage & cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells

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What is the metaphase checkpoint?

Ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division

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2 Categories of Cancer Genes

Dominant: proto-oncoggenes
Recessive: tumor suppressor

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Define Gain of Function Mutations

Altered or unregulated activity of a “photo-oncogene” leads to tumorigenesis

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Define Loss of Function Mutations

Loss of activity of tumor suppressors results in unregulated pathways and tumorigenesis

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“Hallmarks of Cancer”

Self-sufficiency in growth signals
Insensitivity to anti-growth signals
Evading apoptosis
Limitless reproductive potential
Capacity to invade other tissues
Sustained angiogenesis
Tissue invasion &amp; metastases
Genomic instability

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How do cancer cells invade our bodies?

Resisting apoptosis
CSCs forming resistant phenotypes
Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions
Interactions with microenvironment
Invadopodia &amp; aquaporins
Genetic alterations

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Invadopodia

Actin rich membrane protrusion formed by invasive cancer cells (protrude through basement membranes)

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Cancer Stages

Stage 0: mucosa level
Stage 1: through the submucosa
Stage 2: through the muscle layers
Stage 3: through the serosa
Stage 4: through serosa and spread to other organs

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of Mutations with Gain of Function

Single mutation event

of Mutations with Loss of Function

2 mutation events

How do proto-oncogenes normally function?

Associated with cell growth, cell division, & cell differention

What can proto-oncogenes be?

Cell surface receptors Adapter molecules Enzymes: kinases/phosphatases

Type of Cells in Carcinomas

Epithelial cells

Types of Cells in Sarcomas

Connective tissue cells

Types of Cells in Lymphomas & Leukemias

Blood

Types of Cells in Germ Cell Tumors

Testicle & ovary

Types of Cells in Blastomas

Immature cells | Embryonic tissue

Methods of Identification of Cancer Critical Genes

Assay for oncogenic effects Study of rare syndromes-tumor suppressors Candidate genes Genomics

How does Metastasis Occur?

``` Transformed cell Invasion of basement membrane Passage through extracellular matrix Intravasation Interaction with lymphoid cells Tumor embolus Adhesion to basement membrane Extravasation Metastatic deposit Angiogenesis Growth ```

How does cancer spread throughout the body?

Blood stream Lymphatic fluid system Seed into peritoneal, pericardial, or pleural spaces

Most Common Site of Breast Metastasis

Bone

Most Common Site of Colorectal Metastasis

Liver

Most Common Site of Prostate Metastasis

Bone

Why are some cancers more aggressive than others?

Biology: ploidy | Aneuploidy

Grading of Tumors

1: Well differentiated 2: Moderately differentiated 3: Poorly differentiated 4: Undifferentiated anaplastic

Characteristics & Growth Rate of Well Differentiated Tumors

Characteristics: looks like tissue of origin Growth: slow, close to normal cell divisions

Characteristics & Growth Rate of Moderately Differentiated Tumors

Characteristics: many features like tissue of origin; less organized Growth: faster; occasional mitosis

Characteristics & Growth Rate of Well Differentiated Tumors

Characteristics: few features of tissue of origin; little organization Growth: more mitosis

Characteristics & Growth Rate of Undifferentiated Anaplastic Tumors

Characteristics: no features to help distinguish origin Growth: Mitoses throughout tissue

Old Cancer Model

Tumor cells can form new tumors & are tumorigenic Unregulated growth due to expression of genes that promote cell proliferation, silencing of growth inhibitory genes, & blunting of cell death Cancer is proliferative disease

New Cancer Model

Tumors arise from cancer stem cells Unregulated growth due to a disruption in regulatory mechanisms in stem cell renewal Cancer is a stem cell disorder Stem cells persist in tumors which causes relapses & metastasis

What do traditional cancer therapies treat?

Kill rapidly dividing tumor cells but spare the stem cells that give rise to a new tumor

What should halt a tumor's growth & lead to it's disappearance?

Killing cancer stem cells

What are cancer stem cells?

Cells that have properties of normal stem cells such as: 1) ability to self-renew 2) ability to differentiate into multiple cel types 3) form distinct population in tumors that likely causes disease relapse & metastasis

What cancers are more common with hereditary breast/ovarian cancer syndrome?

``` Breast Ovarian Male breast Prostate Pancreatic ```

What cancers are more common with Lynch (HNPCC) syndrome?

``` Colon Gastric Endometrial Ovarian Small bowel Pancreas Brain Ureters Kidney ```

What cancers are more common with familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome?

``` Colon Stomach Thyroid Brain Liver Adrenal gland ```

Less Common Hereditary Cancer Syndromes

``` Li-Fraumeni Syndrome Cowden Syndrome Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome Xeroderma pigmentosa syndrome Von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome Multiple endocrine neoplasia-1 syndrome ```

Common Cancers with Li-Fraumeni Syndrome

``` Breast Bone LEukemia Brain Soft tissue sarcomas ```

Common Cancers with Cowden Syndrome

``` Breast Uterine Thyroid Ovarian Colon ```

Common Cancers with Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome

``` Colon Small bowel Breast Ovarian Pancreatic ```

Common Cancers with Xeroderma Pigmentosa Syndrome

Basal cell Squamous cell Melanoma

Common Cancers with Von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome

``` Brain Retina Kidney Pancreas Adrenal gland ```

Common Cancers with Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia-1 Syndrome

Pancreas Pituitary Parathyroid Thyroid