Biology II Test 2 (Dr. Wright) Flashcards
1
Q
Character
A
Distinguishing feature (morphology, behavior, etc.)
2
Q
Character State
A
Actually present variant/expression of this feature (blue, green, etc.)
3
Q
Derived
A
The younger state of a character that evolved from the basal state only present in some particular linages and their descendants.
Can be the “loss” of a character.
4
Q
Plesiomorphy
A
Basal/ancestral state of a phylogenetic tree
5
Q
Apomorphy
A
Derived state
6
Q
Synapomorphy
A
Shared, derived character
7
Q
Symplesiomorphy
A
Shared ancestral character
8
Q
Autopomorphy
A
Unique derived character
9
Q
Homoplasy
A
Characters which evolved independently
10
Q
Reversal
A
Loss of a derived character
11
Q
Time trees
A
Molecular phylogeny,
number of changes,
molecular clock,
fossil calibrations
12
Q
Use of phylogenies
A
Infer close relatives,
identify unknown species,
infer history of taxa,
infer times of origin,
explain rich diversity,
tracking origin of diseases
13
Q
Ecology
A
The study of relationships between organisms and their environment
14
Q
Abiotic items
A
Temperature,
precipitation/water,
sunlight,
soil,
wind, etc
15
Q
Biotic items
A
Other plants, animals…
Their relationship on the food chain, symbiotic/competitive relationships
16
Q
Organismal ecology
A
Individual organisms interaction with the environment
17
Q
Population ecology
A
Groups of individuals in a species living in an area.
18
Q
Community ecology
A
Groups of populations of different species in an area.
Effects of interactions on structure and organization of community
19
Q
Ecosystem Ecology
A
Community of organisms and physical factors of their environment
20
Q
Landscaping Ecology
A
Energy flow and chemical cycling
21
Q
Global ecology
A
Mosaic of connected ecosystems.
Exchange of energy, matter, and organisms across ecosystems.
22
Q
Climate
A
Long term weather patterns
23
Q
Weather
A
Short-term conditions
24
Q
Ocean climate
A
Large bodies of water buffer temperature.
Ocean streams transport heat/cold across the globe.
Ocean streams and wind-caused upwelling leads to oceanic conveyor belt, transporting nutrients.
25
Mountain climate
Mountains block airflow and sunlight.
Rising air cools leading to precipitation.
Descending dry air creates 'rain shadows'.
Differences in temperature and moisture affect biotic composition.
Elevation indirectly affects temperature and other physical factors.
26
Biomes
Similar environments with similar vegetation
27
Factors that effect distribution of biomes
Latitude,
mountain ranges,
proximity of oceans,
seasonality patterns,
disturbances.
28
Tropic forests
High average temperature, rain forests with constant rainfall,
dry forests less rainfall and the dry season.
Horizontal habitat layers. Biodiversity hotspots.
29
Savanna
High average temperature with more seasonal variation.
Low rainfall, long dry season.
Organisms adapted to dry climates and frequent fires. Large herbivore mammals.
30
Desert
Highly variable temperature annually and daily.
Low and variable rainfall. Low and scattered vegetation.
Adaptations to heat and drought(succulence, water storage, spines, etc).
31
Mediterranean Climate
Hot summers and cool fall, winter, spring.
Dry summers and wet winters.
Frequent-fire and drought adapted shrubs and small trees.
California, Chile, etc (places were grapes grow well!)
32
Temperate Grassland
Seasonal temperature variation.
Dry winters and wet summers.
Dominated by grasses and forbs, very fertile soils.
Adaptations to protracted drought and fire, grazing herds of mammals.
Mid-latitudes and often interior of continents.
(American prairie)
33
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
Hot humid summers and moderately cold winters.
Precipitation throughout the year.
Organisms adapt to winter (hibernating animals, migrating birds, etc.).
Most common in mid-latitudes of Northern Hemisphere.
34
Northern Coniferous Forest
Cold winters and mild summers.
Medium precipitation.
Dominated by conifers (pine, spruce, fir, hemlock).
Adaptions to cold, snow, and water loss (needles).
Largest terrestrial biome.
Band across N America and Eurasia.
35
Tundra
Cold winters and cool summers.
Precipitation in arctic tundra lower than in alpine.
Mostly herbaceous vegetation (mosses, grasses, forbs, etc.).
Permafrost layer prevents deep roots.
Migratory mammals and birds.
Artic tundra and alpine tundra (above tree line elevations).
36
Photic Zone
Vertical aquatic zone where photosynthesis possible
37
Aphotic Zone
Vertical zone too dark for photosynthesis.
38
Littoral Zone
Horizontal zone shallow enough for rooted plants.
39
Limnetic Zone
Horizontal zone too deep for rooted plants
40
Benthic Zone
On sea/lake floor
41
Pelagic Zone
Open water column
42
Wetlands and Estuaries
Filter dissolved nutrients and pollutants.
Occur in various places (coasts, flood banks, islands).
Harbors plants adapted to water-saturated (sometimes anaerobic) soils.
Breeding ground for some marine organisms.
43
Estuary
Transition of river and sea, very nutrient rich.
44
Wetland
Temporarily inundated by water
45
Lakes
Vary greatly in size.
Seasonal or year-round thermoclines.
Runoff can turn lake more eutrophic.
Various plants, phyto- and zooplankton.
Fish in all zones with sufficient oxygen.
46
Oligotrophic
Lakes that are nutrient poor, but oxygen rich.
47
Eutrophic
Lake that are nutrients rich, but oxygen poor.
48
Streams and Rivers
Decrease in oxygen at headwater to increase in temperature, turbidity, and nutrients at mouth.
Rivers meander and deposit sediments at bottom and in bends.
Shape landscape significantly over time.
Various flora and fauna in unpolluted rivers, terrestrial plant matter as main nutrient source.
49
Intertidal Zones
Submerged and exposed by ebb and high tide.
Different exposure time structures distribution of organisms.
High nutrient and oxygen.
Diverse, specialized organisms.
Adaptations to grow on rocks or bury in sand.
Tides replenish food and oxygen.
50
Coral Reefs
Formed from calcium carbonate skeletons of corals.
Require solid ground, often near islands.
Shallow reef-building corals in photic zone.
Deep-sea coral reefs in 200-1500m.
Harbor mutualist algae and high diversity of other animals.
Sensitive to water temperatures, nutrients, and oxygen levels.
51
Oceanic Pelagic Zone
Deeper photic zone due to clearer water than coasts.
Wind mixture leads to high oxygenation.
Low nutrients, but replenished in temperate areas by mixing with deeper waters.
Average depth 4000m to 10000m.
Much phyto- and zooplankton, along with macrofauna
52
Marine Benthic Zone
Mostly dark, increased pressure, decreasing temperature.
Much surface covered by sediment.
Submarine mountains and new oceanic crust.
Adaptations to pressure and low water temp. in abyssal zone.
Around deep sea hydrothermal vents, chemoautotrophic prokaryotes are primary producers.
53
Range
Geographic limits within which a species occurs
54
Distribution
The structure of how populations are distributed within the range.
55
Dispersion
The spatial structure of individuals in a population.
56
Dispersal
The process of individuals or gametes moving away from their area of origin or highest density.
57
Biogeographic History
Inter geographic origin of lineages using phylogenies
58
Dispersal and Distribution Barriers
Water bodies
Mountain ranges
Deserts,
and other inhospitable environments
59
Biotic Factors
Interactions with other species
Predators, prey
Competitors, symbionts..
Parasites, pathogens...
60
Abiotic factors
Temperature: cells break with freezing and proteins denature when too hot.
Water/Oxygen effect on land and for cell respiration.
Salinity
Sunlight: for photosynthesis and primary producers
Rocks and soil: ph, minerals
61
Population Denisty
Individuals per given space
62
Dispersion
The spatial structure of individuals in a population
63
Age structure
Individuals per age catagory
64
Growth patterns
Changes in population size over time
65
Demographics
Key characteristics of population (birth, death, migration)
66
Clumped Dispersion
Most common
Based on clumped resources (food, soil types, shelter)
Mating
Predation
67
Uniform Dispersion
Interactions between individuals
Chemical or behaviural
68
Random
If relevant environmental factors are evenly distributed
If no strong interaction between indivuals
69
Life Tables
Summarize survival and reproductive rates
Follows age cohorts
Often only follow females for sexually reproductive organisms
70
Survivorship Curves
Numbers or proportions of survivors over total lifespan
71
Type I (Curve)
Humans, large vertebrates
few offspring
High offspring survival due to parental care
72
Type II
Many birds and mammals
Intermediate # of offspring and care
Constant rate of morality
73
Type III
Many fishes, invertebrates, plants
Lots of offspring
High offspring morality due to little or no care
74
Population Growth
B-D = rN
75
Carrying Capacity (K)
Limited resources mean limit to number of individuals a habitat can support
76
Life History
Schedule of reproduction and survival.
Size at birth
Age/size when fertile
Sex ratios
Life expectancy
Number of reproductive cycles
etc.
77
K Selection
Populations close to carrying capacity.
Large body size
Late maturity
Much parental care
Density Dependence
Specialists
78
R Selection
Populations far from carrying capacity (high growth rate)
Small body size
Early maturity
No parental care
Density independence
Dispersers, colonizers, weeds...
79
Density Independent Population Regulation
Physical factors
Natural Disasters
Fluctuations in food availability
80
Density Dependent Population Regulation
Competition, Disease, territoriality, intrinsic factors (hormones, behavior)
81
Lynx-Hare Cycle
A population dynamic where the prey increases, the predators increases shortly after
82
Lotka-Volterra Cycle
Prey minus the predation equals the rate of prey growth.
Births times the predators times the prey - death of predators is equal to rate of predator growth.
83
Metapopulation
Population linked through migration
84
Metapopulation characteristics
Local conditions dictate size of each population.
Patches where populations went extinct get recolonized.
Populations in decline 'rescued' by immigrants from larger populations.
Individual populations unstable, metapop. stable
85
Species Diveristy
Richness (# of Species)
+ Evenness (proportion of individuals in a species compared to total in community)
86
More diversity leads to...
More biomass produced
More stability
More resistance to invasives
87
Trophic Structure
Based on food energy transfer
88
Food Web
Species can be on different trophic levels
89
Food Chain
Line from producers to decomposers
90
Bottom-Up Control
Predators have the most impact on the trophic levels
91
Top-Down Control
Nutrients has the most effect on trophic levels.
92
Foundation Species
Large size or abundance
Provide Habitat and/or food
Competitively dominant
93
Keystone Species
Strong control on community structure. (Predation)
94
Ecosystem Engineer
Not through trophic interactions.
Changes physical environment
95
Competition (-/-)
Two species compete for resource.
Limits their survival and reproduction.
96
Competitive Exclusion
Two species can not inhabit same niche at same time/space
97
Fundamental Niche
Conditions needed to surive
98
Realized Niche
Conditions under which organism actually exists
99
Resource Partitioning
Two species differ in some aspect of their niches
100
Character Displacement
Overlapping traits evolve apart when species occur together
101
Exploitation(+/-)
Predation and Herbivory.
102
Herbivory
Herbivore species eats and damages prey species
103
Exploitation(+/-)
Predation and Herbivory. Symbiotic: Parasitism
104
Predator/Herbivore Adaptations
Spines
Tough epidermis
Flocking
Chemical Defenses
Camoflauge
105
Cryptic Coloration
Camoflauge
106
Aposematic Coloration
Warning colors
107
Batesian Mimicry
Edible species looks like poisonous one
108
Mullerian Mimicry
Toxic species looks like other toxic species
109
Parasitism (+/-)
Endo vs Ectoparasites
Parasite harms hosts (through nourishment)
110
Commensalism (+/0)
One species benefits from the other without cost or benefit to the other
111
Mutualism (+/+)
Both mutualists benefit.
Help gets food/protection
Benefits can be different.
112
Biogeography effects on diversity and composition
Latitude
Area Effects
Island Biogeography
Pathogens
113
Disturbance
Event that changes community by removing organisms or by altering resource availability.
Succession and human disturbance effects
114
Equilibrium Theory for Community
Communities are super organisms
115
Nonequilibrium theory for community
Communities as chance assemblages
116
High Disturbance
Frequent and severe.
Exceed environmental tolerances.
117
Low Disturbance
Either rare or not severe.
Allow ecologically dominant species to exclude others.
118
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
Medium disturbance habitat gets more species diversity.
119
Succession
Semi-predictable process of habitat being colonized by life.
120
Primary Succession
Beginning with lifeless area.
Find prokaryotes and protists, then lichens and mosses.
Soil develops, then grasses/shrubs/trees.
Plants that become dominant vegetation appear.
121
Secondary Succession
Beginning with area where disturbance removed most but not all life (bc of a disaster).
122
Facilitation
Make environment favorable to colonizers.
123
Inhibition
Make environment less favorable or occupy the same niche.
124
Independence
Later species can "tolerate" conditions until one finds a way that the conditions have no affect on them.
125
Human Disturbance Examples
Agriculture
Deforestation
Overgrazing
Ocean trawling
Habitat Fragmentation
Surface Modifications
126
Evolutionary History of the Tropics
Older communities there than temperate/polar, which had disturbances like glaciation.
"Cradle, museum, destination-" Lots of unique species are formed in a place where less extinction happens and more animals move to.
127
Climate Relation to the Tropics
High levels of sunlight and precipitation, high evapotranspiration which can correlate to species richness. Possibly linked to importance of water for plant growth, etc.
128
What determines number of species on islands?
Rate of colonization
Rate of extinction
Both affected by current number of species present, distance from mainland, and island size.
129
Island Equilibrium Model
Island of given size and distance has specific equilibrium for species richness.
More species are found on larger islands and closer to mainland.
130
Pathogens
Disease-causing microorganisms and viruses.
