Biology Ch. 4 Flashcards
Pathway of Air
Nose/mouth
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
In Alveoli, O2 and CO2 are passed by:
Simple Diffusion
Respiratory Control
Medulla oblongata (medulla)
Chemoreceptors measure H+ concentration.
Peripheral chemoreceptors also monitor in the carotid arteries and aorta.
Respiratory System:
Goblet cells
Basal cells
Cilia cells
G: secrete mucus
B: produce new cells
C: sweep debris trapped by mucus.
Most efficient respiratory organ:
Gills in fish via countercurrent exchange
Main buffer molecule in blood
Bicarbonate
Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase.
Also transports CO2 in blood.
Shifts in the O2-Hemoglobin Association Curve
Left: oxygen held more tightly.
Right: oxygen held loosely; physiological conditions where tissues need more oxygen.
Increase in CO2, Acid, 2,3DPG, Exercise, and Temp cause right shifts.
Systole vs. Diastole
S: heart contracts.
D: heart relaxes.
Cardiac Output
Stroke Volume x Heart Rate
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
Arteries: thick walls, lots of smooth muscle, elastic.
Arterioles: smooth muscle, major determinant of BP.
Capillaries: single layer of endothelial cells, play role in Temp regulation and BP.
Venules: smallest vein components, very thin and porous.
Veins: Same layers as arteries but much thinner walls; have valves to prevent backflow.
Precapillary Sphincter
Regulates passage of blood into capillaries based on need.
Ex: less blood flow to skeletal muscles when relaxing.
Ductus Venosus
Foramen Ovale
Ductus Arteriousus
DV: bypasses liver.
FO: hole between atria to bypass lungs.
DA: another opportunity to bypass lungs, connects pulmonary artery to aorta.
Universal Donor/Recipient
Donor: O-
Recipient: AB+
Clotting Cascade
Injury that exposes broken BV wall.
Collagen attracts platelets (platelet plug).
Platelets trigger enzyme cascade that converts prothrombin to thrombin (+FB).
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, which reinforces the platelet plug to form a clot.
Central Lymphoid Tissue
Can replenish lymphocytes.
Thymus: T cell maturation.
Bone marrow: produces lymphocytes.
Peripheral Lymphoid Tissues
Can’t replenish lymphocytes.
Lymph Nodes: contain leukocytes that filter lymph and initiate immune response.
Spleen: filters blood.
Adenoids: inspect food and air for pathogens.
Appendix: destroys bacteria before they breach intestinal wall.
Peyer’s Patches: aggregates of lymphoid tissue in the ileum.
Right Lymphatic Duct
Thoracic Duct
RLD: drains upper right area into jugular vein.
TD: drains rest of body into subclavian vein.
Lacteals
Lymph capillaries in digestive system.
Absorb emulsified fats to break down and send into circulation.
Loop of Henle
Descending loop: permeable to water; water leaves which increases the solute concentration.
Ascending loop: impermeable to water; NaCl gets removed which decreases the solute concentration.
Aldosterone and ADH
Aldosterone: increases Na reabsorption from tubules into bloodstream. Water follows Na out and back into the blood.
ADH: increases collecting duct permeability to water; water is reabsorbed out of the kidney and back into the bloodstream; urine becomes more concentrated.
Types of Stomach Cells (5)
Mucus cells: produce mucus to protect stomach lining.
Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen.
Parietal cells: secrete HCl and Intrinsic Factor.
G Cells: produce gastrin which stimulates parietal cells.
ECL cells: stimulated by gastrin; produce histamine to stimulate parietal cells.
Pancreas (Digestive Functions)
Secretes bicarbonate to neutralize acid.
Proteases: trypsin, chymotrypsin.
Secretes amylase, lipase, and nuclease.
Microbiome
Assist in digestion, immunity, and vitamin synthesis and absorption.
Extended use of ABs can cause vitamin deficiencies.
Gastrin
Stimulates secretion of HCl; triggered by food.
Secretin
Secreted by duodenum.
Triggered by presence of acid.
Signals pancreas to release bicarbonate.
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Stimulates gall bladder to release bile and pancreas to release enzymes.
Slows gastric motility/emptying.
Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
Triggered by glucose, fats, and proteins in SI.
Stimulates insulin release.
Somatostatin
Secreted by pancreas.
Inhibits secretion of most digestive enzymes.
Decreases gastric motility.
Ghrelin vs. Leptin
Ghrelin: initiates hunger.
Leptin: suppresses hunger.
Glial Cells:
Oligodendrocytes
Schwann Cells
Microglia
Ependymal Cells
Satellite Cells
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes: make myelin in CNS.
Schwann Cells: make myelin in PNS.
Microglia: phagocytes in CNS.
Ependymal Cells: circulate CSF with cilia.
Satellite Cells: support cells in PNS.
Astrocytes: physically support CNS neurons, maintain nutrient and mineral balance.
Functions of:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Basal Ganglia
Hippocampus
T: relay between spinal cord and cerebral cortex.
HT: visceral functions; sleep, hunger, temp regulation.
BG: planning/learning movement sequences.
HC: memory.
Limbic System
Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus.
Behavioral and emotional responses.
Divisions of the Cerebral Cortex:
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
F: conscious thought/attention.
P: sensory; somatosensation, proprioception.
T: sound processing/interpretation.
O: visual input.
Hindbrain Functions:
Cerebellum
Brainstem
C: balance and coordination.
BST: pons is relay center between the cortex and cerebellum; medulla controls breathing, HR, and GI.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Secreted at neuromuscular junctions for contraction of muscles.
Recycled/broken down by acetylcholinesterase.
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
Glutamate: most common CNS NT; excitatory.
GABA: inhibitory in brain.
Glycine: inhibitory in spinal cord.
Amino Acid Derived NTs
Epi/NorEpi: excitatory in autonomic NS.
Dopamine: mood, attention, sleep, learning.
Serotonin: same as DA.
Types of Sensory Receptors
Mechanoreceptors: touch
Thermoreceptors: temp
Nociceptors: pain
Electromagnetic Receptors: light.
Chemoreceptors: tase, smell, blood chemistry.
Organization of muscle tissue smallest to largest
Sarcomere
Myofibril
Muscle fiber
Fascicle
Muscle
Muscle Contraction Process
ACh is released at NMJ; AP is propagated down sarcolemma and T tubules.
Ca2+ is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Ca2+ binds to troponin and pulls back tropomyosin, allowing actin and myosin to bind.
Pi is released from myosin which initiates a power stroke.
Myosin releases ADP.
New ATP binds to myosin causing it to release from actin.
ATP is hydrolyzed and myosin cocks back, ready to attach again.
Tonus
Constant state of partial contraction, never relaxed.
Posture, balance, reflexes.
Alternates motor units.
Single Unit vs. Multi Unit Smooth Muscle
SU: gap junctions, contract as single unit. visceral organs; less precise control.
MU: each fiber innervated by a neuron; can contract independently. Iris, bronchioles; more precise.
When stress is put on a bone:
Osteoblasts deposit collagen, calcium, and phosphate to strengthen the bone and make hydroxyapatite.
Joint Types:
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
F: no movement; sutures.
C: some movement; spine, ribs.
S: allows for movement; filled with synovial fluid that acts as lubricant.
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Osteocytes
OP: differentiate into osteoblasts.
Osteocytes: exchange nutrients and waste material; differentiated from osteoblasts.
Epiphyseal Plate
Sheet of cartilage found between metaphysis and epiphysis.
Location of vertical bone growth.
Spongy vs. Compact Bone
S: trabeculae, inside, porous.
C: cortical, outer, dense and organized.
Epiphysis
Metaphysis
Diaphysis
E: ends of bone; red bone marrow.
M: separates E and D; red bone marrow.
D: shaft of bone; yellow bone marrow.
Layers of the Epidermis
Stratum Corneum: dead keratin, hydrophobic.
Stratum Lucidum: palms and soles.
Stratum Granulosum: skin cells begin dying and are filled with keratin.
Stratum Spinosum: desmosomes; strength and flexibility.
Stratum Basale: new cells formed.
Dermis
Dense connective tissue
Collagen (triple helix)
Vascularized
Two Types of Sudoriferous Glands
Eccrine: watery sweat, located everywhere, thermoregulation.
Apocrine: more viscous, located in armpits and pubic regions, pheromones.
Phagocytic Leukocytes:
Neutrophils
Monocytes
Macrophages
Dendritic Cells
N: function in the destruction of pathogens in infected tissues.
Mon: circulate in blood until they move into tissues where they develop into macrophages.
Mac: in tissues, they phagocytize cell debris and pathogens.
D: ingest pathogens and stimulate the acquired immune response.
Non-Phagocytic Leukocytes:
Mast Cells
Eosinophils
Basophils
NK Cells
M: allergic response, inflammatory response, anaphylaxis.
E: surround and destroy multicellular parasites.
B: release histamine in inflam response; recruited to tissues when needed.
NK: attack abnormal body cells, either tumors or pathogen-infected cells.
Toll-Like Receptors
Key for innate immunity.
Recognize molecular patterns present on surface or inside of pathogens, like flagella, cell walls, and dsRNA.
Immune Molecules:
Cytokines
Interleukins
Interferons
C: cell-cell communication.
IL: types of cytokines; IL-1 involved in inflammatory reaction; IL-2 triggers adaptive immunity.
IF: secreted by infected cells that stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins to defend against viral infections.
Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity
Innate: generates a rapid, nonspecific immune response; utilizes leukocytes.
Adaptive: specific; develops after the body has been attacked; creates memory; utilizes lymphocytes.
B Cells
Originate and mature in bone marrow.
Produce antibodies that bind to antigens.
T Cells and 4 types:
Cytotoxic
Helper
Suppressor
Memory
Originate in bone marrow, mature in thymus.
Have antigen receptors
C: killer T cells that destroy by releasing perforin.
H: stimulate activation of B cells, cytotoxic and suppressor T cells.
S: negative feedback in immune system
M: have memory of antigens
Major Histocompatibility Complex
Glycoproteins on membranes of all body cells.
Help distinguish self and non-self.
Humoral Response vs. Cell-Mediated Response
H: extracellular pathogens are recognized in blood or lymph; B cells produce antibodies that lead to destruction of pathogen.
CM: infected cell is recognized and bound by T cell; T cells proliferate and lyse infected cell.
Hormones from the Anterior Pituitary
All Peptide
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
Growth Hormone
Hormones from the Posterior Pituitary
Peptides.
ADH
Oxytocin
Stores them for release, doesn’t make them.
Hormones from Thyroid
T3/T4: Tyr derived, permeable to membranes, increase metabolism and heart rate.
Calcitonin: peptide; “tones down” calcium in blood, inhibits osteoclasts.
Parathyroid Hormone
opposite to calcitonin; increases calcium in blood.
activates vit D.
Hormones from Adrenal Cortex vs. Medulla
Cortex: steroids; glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and androgens.
Medulla: Tyr derived; epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Pancreas:
Alpha cells
Beta Cells
Delta Cells
All peptides
Alpha: secretes glucagon which triggers breakdown of glycogen.
Beta: secretes insulin.
Delta: secretes somatostatin which inhibits the release of glucagon and insulin and slows GI.
Viviparity
Oviparity
Ovoviviparity
V: birth to live young that receive nutrients from mother’s body.
Ovip: fertilized eggs get laid then hatch.
Ovovivip: internally fertilized eggs hatch and give birth to live young who continue to receive nutrients from yok.
