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OAT > Biology Ch. 4 > Flashcards

Biology Ch. 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Pathway of Air

A

Nose/mouth
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli

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2
Q

In Alveoli, O2 and CO2 are passed by:

A

Simple Diffusion

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3
Q

Respiratory Control

A

Medulla oblongata (medulla)
Chemoreceptors measure H+ concentration.
Peripheral chemoreceptors also monitor in the carotid arteries and aorta.

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4
Q

Respiratory System:
Goblet cells
Basal cells
Cilia cells

A

G: secrete mucus
B: produce new cells
C: sweep debris trapped by mucus.

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5
Q

Most efficient respiratory organ:

A

Gills in fish via countercurrent exchange

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6
Q

Main buffer molecule in blood

A

Bicarbonate
Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase.
Also transports CO2 in blood.

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7
Q

Shifts in the O2-Hemoglobin Association Curve

A

Left: oxygen held more tightly.
Right: oxygen held loosely; physiological conditions where tissues need more oxygen.

Increase in CO2, Acid, 2,3DPG, Exercise, and Temp cause right shifts.

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8
Q

Systole vs. Diastole

A

S: heart contracts.
D: heart relaxes.

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9
Q

Cardiac Output

A

Stroke Volume x Heart Rate

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10
Q

Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins

A

Arteries: thick walls, lots of smooth muscle, elastic.
Arterioles: smooth muscle, major determinant of BP.
Capillaries: single layer of endothelial cells, play role in Temp regulation and BP.
Venules: smallest vein components, very thin and porous.
Veins: Same layers as arteries but much thinner walls; have valves to prevent backflow.

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11
Q

Precapillary Sphincter

A

Regulates passage of blood into capillaries based on need.

Ex: less blood flow to skeletal muscles when relaxing.

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12
Q

Ductus Venosus
Foramen Ovale
Ductus Arteriousus

A

DV: bypasses liver.
FO: hole between atria to bypass lungs.
DA: another opportunity to bypass lungs, connects pulmonary artery to aorta.

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13
Q

Universal Donor/Recipient

A

Donor: O-
Recipient: AB+

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14
Q

Clotting Cascade

A

Injury that exposes broken BV wall.
Collagen attracts platelets (platelet plug).
Platelets trigger enzyme cascade that converts prothrombin to thrombin (+FB).
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, which reinforces the platelet plug to form a clot.

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15
Q

Central Lymphoid Tissue

A

Can replenish lymphocytes.
Thymus: T cell maturation.
Bone marrow: produces lymphocytes.

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16
Q

Peripheral Lymphoid Tissues

A

Can’t replenish lymphocytes.

Lymph Nodes: contain leukocytes that filter lymph and initiate immune response.
Spleen: filters blood.
Adenoids: inspect food and air for pathogens.
Appendix: destroys bacteria before they breach intestinal wall.
Peyer’s Patches: aggregates of lymphoid tissue in the ileum.

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17
Q

Right Lymphatic Duct
Thoracic Duct

A

RLD: drains upper right area into jugular vein.
TD: drains rest of body into subclavian vein.

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18
Q

Lacteals

A

Lymph capillaries in digestive system.
Absorb emulsified fats to break down and send into circulation.

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19
Q

Loop of Henle

A

Descending loop: permeable to water; water leaves which increases the solute concentration.
Ascending loop: impermeable to water; NaCl gets removed which decreases the solute concentration.

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20
Q

Aldosterone and ADH

A

Aldosterone: increases Na reabsorption from tubules into bloodstream. Water follows Na out and back into the blood.

ADH: increases collecting duct permeability to water; water is reabsorbed out of the kidney and back into the bloodstream; urine becomes more concentrated.

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21
Q

Types of Stomach Cells (5)

A

Mucus cells: produce mucus to protect stomach lining.
Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen.
Parietal cells: secrete HCl and Intrinsic Factor.
G Cells: produce gastrin which stimulates parietal cells.
ECL cells: stimulated by gastrin; produce histamine to stimulate parietal cells.

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22
Q

Pancreas (Digestive Functions)

A

Secretes bicarbonate to neutralize acid.
Proteases: trypsin, chymotrypsin.
Secretes amylase, lipase, and nuclease.

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23
Q

Microbiome

A

Assist in digestion, immunity, and vitamin synthesis and absorption.
Extended use of ABs can cause vitamin deficiencies.

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24
Q

Gastrin

A

Stimulates secretion of HCl; triggered by food.

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25
Q

Secretin

A

Secreted by duodenum.
Triggered by presence of acid.
Signals pancreas to release bicarbonate.

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26
Q

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A

Stimulates gall bladder to release bile and pancreas to release enzymes.
Slows gastric motility/emptying.

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27
Q

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide

A

Triggered by glucose, fats, and proteins in SI.
Stimulates insulin release.

28
Q

Somatostatin

A

Secreted by pancreas.
Inhibits secretion of most digestive enzymes.
Decreases gastric motility.

29
Q

Ghrelin vs. Leptin

A

Ghrelin: initiates hunger.
Leptin: suppresses hunger.

30
Q

Glial Cells:
Oligodendrocytes
Schwann Cells
Microglia
Ependymal Cells
Satellite Cells
Astrocytes

A

Oligodendrocytes: make myelin in CNS.
Schwann Cells: make myelin in PNS.
Microglia: phagocytes in CNS.
Ependymal Cells: circulate CSF with cilia.
Satellite Cells: support cells in PNS.
Astrocytes: physically support CNS neurons, maintain nutrient and mineral balance.

31
Q

Functions of:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Basal Ganglia
Hippocampus

A

T: relay between spinal cord and cerebral cortex.
HT: visceral functions; sleep, hunger, temp regulation.
BG: planning/learning movement sequences.
HC: memory.

32
Q

Limbic System

A

Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus.
Behavioral and emotional responses.

33
Q

Divisions of the Cerebral Cortex:
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital

A

F: conscious thought/attention.
P: sensory; somatosensation, proprioception.
T: sound processing/interpretation.
O: visual input.

34
Q

Hindbrain Functions:
Cerebellum
Brainstem

A

C: balance and coordination.
BST: pons is relay center between the cortex and cerebellum; medulla controls breathing, HR, and GI.

35
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

Secreted at neuromuscular junctions for contraction of muscles.
Recycled/broken down by acetylcholinesterase.

36
Q

Amino Acid Neurotransmitters

A

Glutamate: most common CNS NT; excitatory.
GABA: inhibitory in brain.
Glycine: inhibitory in spinal cord.

37
Q

Amino Acid Derived NTs

A

Epi/NorEpi: excitatory in autonomic NS.
Dopamine: mood, attention, sleep, learning.
Serotonin: same as DA.

38
Q

Types of Sensory Receptors

A

Mechanoreceptors: touch
Thermoreceptors: temp
Nociceptors: pain
Electromagnetic Receptors: light.
Chemoreceptors: tase, smell, blood chemistry.

39
Q

Organization of muscle tissue smallest to largest

A

Sarcomere
Myofibril
Muscle fiber
Fascicle
Muscle

40
Q

Muscle Contraction Process

A

ACh is released at NMJ; AP is propagated down sarcolemma and T tubules.
Ca2+ is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Ca2+ binds to troponin and pulls back tropomyosin, allowing actin and myosin to bind.
Pi is released from myosin which initiates a power stroke.
Myosin releases ADP.
New ATP binds to myosin causing it to release from actin.
ATP is hydrolyzed and myosin cocks back, ready to attach again.

41
Q

Tonus

A

Constant state of partial contraction, never relaxed.
Posture, balance, reflexes.
Alternates motor units.

42
Q

Single Unit vs. Multi Unit Smooth Muscle

A

SU: gap junctions, contract as single unit. visceral organs; less precise control.
MU: each fiber innervated by a neuron; can contract independently. Iris, bronchioles; more precise.

43
Q

When stress is put on a bone:

A

Osteoblasts deposit collagen, calcium, and phosphate to strengthen the bone and make hydroxyapatite.

44
Q

Joint Types:
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial

A

F: no movement; sutures.
C: some movement; spine, ribs.
S: allows for movement; filled with synovial fluid that acts as lubricant.

45
Q

Osteoprogenitor Cells
Osteocytes

A

OP: differentiate into osteoblasts.
Osteocytes: exchange nutrients and waste material; differentiated from osteoblasts.

46
Q

Epiphyseal Plate

A

Sheet of cartilage found between metaphysis and epiphysis.
Location of vertical bone growth.

47
Q

Spongy vs. Compact Bone

A

S: trabeculae, inside, porous.
C: cortical, outer, dense and organized.

48
Q

Epiphysis
Metaphysis
Diaphysis

A

E: ends of bone; red bone marrow.
M: separates E and D; red bone marrow.
D: shaft of bone; yellow bone marrow.

49
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

A

Stratum Corneum: dead keratin, hydrophobic.
Stratum Lucidum: palms and soles.
Stratum Granulosum: skin cells begin dying and are filled with keratin.
Stratum Spinosum: desmosomes; strength and flexibility.
Stratum Basale: new cells formed.

50
Q

Dermis

A

Dense connective tissue
Collagen (triple helix)
Vascularized

51
Q

Two Types of Sudoriferous Glands

A

Eccrine: watery sweat, located everywhere, thermoregulation.
Apocrine: more viscous, located in armpits and pubic regions, pheromones.

52
Q

Phagocytic Leukocytes:
Neutrophils
Monocytes
Macrophages
Dendritic Cells

A

N: function in the destruction of pathogens in infected tissues.
Mon: circulate in blood until they move into tissues where they develop into macrophages.
Mac: in tissues, they phagocytize cell debris and pathogens.
D: ingest pathogens and stimulate the acquired immune response.

53
Q

Non-Phagocytic Leukocytes:
Mast Cells
Eosinophils
Basophils
NK Cells

A

M: allergic response, inflammatory response, anaphylaxis.
E: surround and destroy multicellular parasites.
B: release histamine in inflam response; recruited to tissues when needed.
NK: attack abnormal body cells, either tumors or pathogen-infected cells.

54
Q

Toll-Like Receptors

A

Key for innate immunity.
Recognize molecular patterns present on surface or inside of pathogens, like flagella, cell walls, and dsRNA.

55
Q

Immune Molecules:
Cytokines
Interleukins
Interferons

A

C: cell-cell communication.
IL: types of cytokines; IL-1 involved in inflammatory reaction; IL-2 triggers adaptive immunity.
IF: secreted by infected cells that stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins to defend against viral infections.

56
Q

Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity

A

Innate: generates a rapid, nonspecific immune response; utilizes leukocytes.
Adaptive: specific; develops after the body has been attacked; creates memory; utilizes lymphocytes.

57
Q

B Cells

A

Originate and mature in bone marrow.
Produce antibodies that bind to antigens.

58
Q

T Cells and 4 types:
Cytotoxic
Helper
Suppressor
Memory

A

Originate in bone marrow, mature in thymus.
Have antigen receptors

C: killer T cells that destroy by releasing perforin.
H: stimulate activation of B cells, cytotoxic and suppressor T cells.
S: negative feedback in immune system
M: have memory of antigens

59
Q

Major Histocompatibility Complex

A

Glycoproteins on membranes of all body cells.
Help distinguish self and non-self.

60
Q

Humoral Response vs. Cell-Mediated Response

A

H: extracellular pathogens are recognized in blood or lymph; B cells produce antibodies that lead to destruction of pathogen.
CM: infected cell is recognized and bound by T cell; T cells proliferate and lyse infected cell.

61
Q

Hormones from the Anterior Pituitary

A

All Peptide
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
Growth Hormone

62
Q

Hormones from the Posterior Pituitary

A

Peptides.
ADH
Oxytocin
Stores them for release, doesn’t make them.

63
Q

Hormones from Thyroid

A

T3/T4: Tyr derived, permeable to membranes, increase metabolism and heart rate.
Calcitonin: peptide; “tones down” calcium in blood, inhibits osteoclasts.

64
Q

Parathyroid Hormone

A

opposite to calcitonin; increases calcium in blood.
activates vit D.

65
Q

Hormones from Adrenal Cortex vs. Medulla

A

Cortex: steroids; glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and androgens.
Medulla: Tyr derived; epinephrine and norepinephrine.

66
Q

Pancreas:
Alpha cells
Beta Cells
Delta Cells

A

All peptides
Alpha: secretes glucagon which triggers breakdown of glycogen.
Beta: secretes insulin.
Delta: secretes somatostatin which inhibits the release of glucagon and insulin and slows GI.

67
Q

Viviparity
Oviparity
Ovoviviparity

A

V: birth to live young that receive nutrients from mother’s body.
Ovip: fertilized eggs get laid then hatch.
Ovovivip: internally fertilized eggs hatch and give birth to live young who continue to receive nutrients from yok.

OAT (7 decks)

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