Biology- Animal Behavior

Question 1

Genetic Basis of Behavior

Answer 1

can be inherited through genes (innate-molded by natural selection-increase fitness) or learned. Behavioral ecology is the study of behavior that seeks to explain how specific behaviors increase fitness.

Question 2

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Simple and Complex Reflexes

Answer 2

• Simple- automatic 2 nerve (afferent/efferent) response to stimulus controlled @ spinal cord (lower animals)
• Complex- automatic response to significant stimulus (controlled @ brains stem or even cerebrum)
  
  • Ex: Startle response- controlled by the reticular activating system

Question 3

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Instinct

Answer 3

behavior that is innate, or inherited

Ex: In mammals, care for offspring by female parents

Question 4

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Fixed action patterns (FAP)

Answer 4

innate behaviors following a regular, unvarying pattern. Initiated by a specific stimulus called sign stimuli (releaser when between members of same species), and completed even if original intent of behavior cannot be fulfilled

• Ex: Goose methodically rolling egg back to nest even if it slips away or is removed
• Ex: Male stickleback fish defending territory against any object with red underside
• Ex: Swimming actions of fish/flying actions of locusts

Question 5

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Imprinting

Answer 5

innate program for acquiring specific behavior only if appropriate stimulus is experienced during critical period. Once acquired, trait is irreversible

• Ex: Gay goslings accepting any moving object as mother during first day of life
• Ex: salmon hatch in freshwater, migrate to ocean to feed, return to birthplace to breed based on imprinted odors associated w/ birthplace

Question 6

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Associative learning

Answer 6

occurs when an animal recognizes (learns) that events are connected. A form called classical conditioning occurs when animal performs behavior in response to substitute stimulus rather than normal stimulus

• Ex: Dogs salivate when presented with food. PAVLOV bell ringing prior to food, could stimulate salivation with bell alone
• Established innate reflex is unconditioned stimulus (food causing salivation), natural response to that is the unconditioned response (salivation)
• Association of bell with food leads to it becoming conditioned stimulus that will elicit response even in absence of the unconditioned stimulus. Product of this conditioning experience is called the conditioned reflex (salivation)

Question 7

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Trial-and-error learning (operant conditioning)

Answer 7

another form of associative learning that occurs when animal connects its own behavior with environmental response, reward. If response is desirable (positive reinforcement), animal will repeat behavior. If negative/undesirable (painful, e.g. punishment), animal avoids behavior (positive reinforcement = add something good to increase a behavior; negative reinforcement = take away something bad to increase a behavior vs positive punishment = add something bad to decrease behavior; negative punishment = take away something good to decrease behavior)

• Learned behavior can be reversed in absence of reinforcement; behavior no longer elicits the response (extinction)
• Recovery of conditioned response to conditioned stimulus after delay following extinction = spontaneous recovery

Question 8

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Spatial learning

Answer 8

Another form of associative learning. Animal associates attributes of landmark with reward of identifying and returning to that location

Ex: Wasps able to associate pinecones with location of nest (lost upon removal)

Question 9

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Habituation

Answer 9

learned behavior that allows animal to disregard meaningless stimuli

• Sea anemones disregarding repeated “feeding” stimulation with a stick
• If stimulus no longer regularly applies, response will recover over time – spontaneous recovery

Question 10

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Observational learning

Answer 10

animal copies behavior of another without having experienced any feedback themselves

Ex: All monkeys followed lead of first by washing off potato in water

Question 11

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Insight

Answer 11

When animal exposed to new situation w/out prior exp., performs a behavior that generates (+) outcome

Question 12

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Innate behavior

Answer 12

Some behaviors appear learned but are actually innate behaviors that require maturation (ex: bird appears to learn to fly by trial+error or observational learning, but if raised in isolation will fly on first try if physically capable à flight ability is innate but requires physical maturation).

Question 13

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Inherited behaviors

Answer 13

evolved because they increase fitness. Innate behaviors (e.g. FAP) provide successful/dependable mechanism to an expected event; challenge need not be resolved repeatedly by every new generation.

In contrast imprinting provides flexibility→if mother killed, imprint→new mother chosen (likely same species)

Question 14

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Associative learning

Answer 14

allows individuals to benefit from exposure to unexpected repeated events.

• Habituation allows individuals to ignore repetitive events known to be inconsequential from exp. → can remain focused on other, more meaningful events.
• Observational and Insight provide mechanism to learn new behaviors in response to unexpected events w/out receiving reinforcement→ reduces time for new behavior to be acquired

Question 15

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Circadian Rhythms

Answer 15

Daily cycles of behavior

Question 16

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Stimulus generalization

Answer 16

conditioned organism responds to stimuli similar but not identical to original conditioned stimulus

Question 17

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 17

involves the ability of the learning organism to differentially respond to slightly different stimuli (e.g. only respond to 990 to 1010 Hz range).

Question 18

Kinds of Animal Behavior

Stimulus generalization gradient

Answer 18

further from original conditioned stimulus, lesser the magnitude of response

Question 19

Animal Movement

Kinesis

Answer 19

an undirected (without direction) change in speed of an animal’s movement in response to a stimulus; slow down in favorable environment and speed up in unfavorable environment.

Ex: animals scurrying when rock is lifted up

Question 20

Animal Movement

Taxis

Answer 20

directed movement in response to stimulus. Movement is either toward/away from stimulus. Phototaxis is the movement toward light. Ex: moths moving toward light, sharks moving toward food odors

Question 21

Animal Movement

Migration

Answer 21

long-distance, seasonal movement of animals. Usually in response to availability of food/degradation of environmental conditions.

• Ex: migration by whales, birds, elk, insects, and bats to warmer climates.

Question 22

Communication in Animals

Communication in Animals

Answer 22

1. **Chemical **chemicals used for communication are pheromones. Chemicals that trigger reversible behavioral changes are called releaser pheromones; those that cause long term physiological (and behavioral) changes are called primer pheromones. Pheromones may be smelled or eaten.
   
   • Ex: Doe in heat – releaser pheromones
   • Ex: Queen bees and aunts secrete primer pheromones to prevent development of reproductive capability
2. **Visual **during displays of aggression (agonistic behavior) or during courtship
   
   • Ex: aggression- wolves baring teeth/ submission- laying on back
   • Ex: Male sage grouse assemble into groups (leks) to perform courtship dance
3. **Auditory **
   
   • Ex: whale sound, elephant infrasound, frog calls, and songs of male birds
4. Tactile
   
   • Common in social bonding, infant care, grooming, and mating

Question 23

Foraging Behavior

Answer 23

optimize feeding (minimize energy spent and risk)

1. Herds, flocks, schools: several advantages, uses cooperation (carry out a behavior more successfully as a group)
   a. Concealment: most individuals in flock are hidden from view.
   b. Vigilance: in a group, individuals can trade off foraging and watching for predators.
   c. Defense: a group of individuals can shield their young or mob their predator.
2. Packs: enable members to corner and successfully attack large prey.
3. Search images: help animals find favored or plentiful food based on specific and/or abbreviated target ‘image’; ex spotting a police car (black and white search image), book on shelf (color and shape w/out reading title)

Question 24

Social Behavior

Social Behavior

Answer 24

1. Agonistic behavior
2. Dominance hierarchies
3. Territoriality
4. Altruistic behavior

Question 25

Social Behavior

Agonistic behavior

Answer 25

(aggression and submission)- Ex: dog wagging tail

• Originates from competition from food, mates, or territory
• Agnostic behavior is ritualized, so injuries and time spent in contests are minimized

Question 26

Social Behavior

Dominance hierarchies

Answer 26

indicate power and status relationship in a group; minimize fighting for food/mates

Pecking order- linear order of status used to describe dominance hierarchy in chickens

Question 27

Social Behavior

Territoriality

Answer 27

active possession and defense of territory- ensures adequate food/place to mate

Question 28

Social Behavior

Altruistic behavior

Answer 28

seemingly unselfish behavior that appears to reduce fitness of individual- when an animal risks its safety in defense of another/in order to help another individual rear its young

• Actually increases inclusive fitness (fitness of individual plus relatives [who share some identical genes])
• Kin selection- natural selection that increases inclusive fitness
• Ex: Squirrels alarm when predator comes à risky to self but save daughters, mothers, sisters, and aunts à kin selection.
• Ex: haplodiploid reproductive system of bees- males are haploid (unfertilized egg of queen) and female workers and queen are diploid (fertilized eggs). Females are highly related to each other (same father whose genes all come from a queen mother + same queen). Inclusive fitness of female workers is greater if she promotes production of sisters