Biology A: All Units Flashcards
1
Q
activation energy
A
the energy input required to start a chemical reaction
2
Q
active transport
A
the movement by energy of molecules across a cell membrane from low to high concentration
3
Q
adaptation
A
beneficial mutation that can increase a species survival rate
4
Q
ADP
A
adenosine diphosphate, a nucleotide that becomes ATP when it gains a phosphorous group
5
Q
aerobic respiration
A
uses matter from the food we eat and from the oxygen in the atmosphere to fuel our bodies
6
Q
allele
A
a version of a gene that codes for a different phenotype of a trait
7
Q
amino acids
A
the building blocks of protein
8
Q
anaerobic
A
a process that does not require oxygen
9
Q
anticodon
A
a group of three bases in tRNA that is complementary to a codon on mRNA
10
Q
apoptosis
A
a series of steps the cell takes in order to self-destruct
11
Q
aquaporins
A
the protein channels that allow water to enter and leave a cell
12
Q
arteriole
A
a smaller blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood
13
Q
artery
A
a large blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
14
Q
ATP
A
an energy-carrying molecule that is used by the cells of all living things
15
Q
ATP synthase
A
a protein that creates ATP from ADP during photosynthesis
16
Q
autotroph
A
organisms that can make their own food
17
Q
binary fission
A
a type of asexual reproduction in which a fully grown parent cell separates into two cells
18
Q
biomolecule
A
a molecule that is produced by a living thing
19
Q
bronchi
A
tubes that carry air into the lungs
20
Q
calorie
A
a unit used to measure the energy stored in food
21
Q
cancer
A
a disease caused by disruptions in the cell cycle that leads to uncontrollable growth and reproduction of certain cell types
22
Q
capillary
A
a tiny blood vessel
23
Q
capsid
A
a protein coat surrounding the genetic material of a virus
24
Q
carbohydrate
A
a biomolecule made of simple sugars
25
carbohydrates
a biomolecule made of simple sugars
26
carbon
nonmetallic chemical element with an atomic number of 6 that bonds with many other elements
27
carbon dioxide
a gas exhaled from the body
28
carnivore
an organism that eats only other animals for energy
29
carrier
an individual who has one recessive allele for a genetic disease but usually does not show symptoms of the disease
30
causation
the act of producing an end result
31
cell cycle
a sequence of specific steps taken by cells to prepare for and perform reproduction
32
cell membrane
a semipermeable membrane made of a double layer of lipids that surrounds a cell
33
Cell theory
all organisms are made of cells and they come from pre-existing cells
34
cells
the smallest unit of life that displays all of the characteristics of life
35
cellular respiration
the process by which glucose and oxygen form ATP
36
cellulose
a carbohydrate made from glucose that is found in the cell walls
37
chemical digestion
the breakdown of food as a result of chemicals the body releases.
38
chemical equation
a model of a chemical reaction
39
chemical reaction
a change that occurs when 2 or more substances combine to form a new substance
40
chlorophyll
green pigment that captures the energy from the sun
41
chloroplast
organelle in a green plant cell that conducts photosynthesis
42
chromatin
a material consisting of strings of nucleosomes that are wrapped together to form a rope-like structure in eukaryotes
43
chromatin remodeling
the process by which DNA is unwound from its associated protein to allow for transcription or replication
44
chromosome
a thread-like structure in the cell nucleus that contains DNA wrapped around proteins called histones
45
codominance
a non-Mendelian inheritance pattern in which both alleles for a gene are expressed equally
46
codon
a group of three bases in mRNA that codes for an amino acid in the protein
47
cofactor
a nonprotein substance that helps enzymes catalyze chemical reactions
48
complete dominance
a Mendelian inheritance pattern in which one allele is dominant over the other allele and completely masks the phenotype of the recessive allele when at least one dominant allele is present in the genotype
49
concentration gradient
the gradual change in concentration of a solute in a solution
50
conservation of matter
during a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed; it just changes form.
51
correlation
a relationship between two variables but it does not mean that one causes the other
52
covalent bond
the connection between two atoms when they share a pair of electrons
53
cross breeding
the breeding of two organisms of different kinds or varieties
54
crossing-over
the process that occurs when genetic information is swapped between homologous chromosomes
55
cytoplasm
a thick solution, made up of water, salts and proteins, that fills each cell and is within the cell membrane
56
daughter cell
the two cells produced by cell division
57
dehydration synthesis
a chemical reaction in which water is removed during the formation of a new molecule
58
deletion
a type of mutation that involves one or more bases being deleted from the DNA sequence
59
deoxygenated
a substance without oxygen
60
deoxyribose
a sugar that forms the backbone of a DNA molecule
61
dependent variable
variables that happen because of changes made to the independent variables
62
diaphragm
a layer of muscle and connective tissue that separates the chest from the abdomen and pulls air into the lungs when it contracts
63
differential gene expression
the process by which different genes in a cell activate during specialization
64
differentiated cell
a cell that has changed from a less specialized to a more specialized cell type
65
differentiation
an increase in the specialization of a cell
66
diffusion
the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
67
disaccharide
a sugar made of 2 monosaccharides
68
distribution
how the variation in traits is spread across a population
69
DNA
a nucleic acid molecule that contains genes
70
DNA methylation
groups of organic material (one carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms) that bond to DNA to aid in expressing gene traits
71
DNA polymerase
an enzyme that plays a critical role in placing nucleotides in the correct order
72
DNA replication
the process by which a DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical molecules
73
dominant
a trait that can be expressed with only one copy of the allele of a gene
74
dominant trait
a trait that is expressed even if only one allele for the trait is present
75
ectotherm
an organism that depends on external sources to regulate its body temperature
76
elastic tissue
tissue that can expand and contract without losing its shape
77
electron transport chain
a series of reactions that creates an electrochemical gradient to produce ATP
78
electronegative
atoms and molecules that tend to acquire electrons in chemical reactions
79
empirical question
a question that can be answered by investigation and observation
80
endocytosis
taking large materials into a cell
81
endomembrane system
a network of membrane-bound organelles that are involved in the production and processing of proteins that will be integrated into a membrane, packaged into an organelle, or exported to the outside of the cell
82
endotherm
an organism that can regulate its own body temperature and generate its own internal heat
83
endothermic
a change that absorbs more energy than it releases
84
energy
the ability to do work
85
environmental factor
any living or nonliving factor that influences a living organism
86
enzyme
a specialized protein that speeds up a chemical reaction
87
enzymes
proteins that speed up chemical reactions
88
Epigenetic changes
DNA modifications that do not affect the sequence but the expression of certain genes
89
Epigenome
made of compounds and proteins that attach to DNA and can affect which genes are turned “on” or “off” in the production of certain proteins
90
epistasis
the interaction between genes that influences a phenotype
91
equilibrium
the concentration inside of the cell is equal to the concentration outside of a cell
92
euchromatin
a type of lightly staining chromatin that is loosely packed and allows for the transcription and translation of genes
93
eukaryote
a type of cell that contains membrane-bound organelles
94
eukaryotic
a type of cell that contains membrane-bound organelles such as a nucleus
95
eukaryotic cell
a type of animal or plant cell that contains membrane-bound organelles, such as a nucleus
96
evolution
a change in the genetic makeup of a species over time
97
exocytosis
moving large materials out of a cell
98
exon
a portion of a gene that is expressed into protein
99
exothermic
a change that releases more energy than it absorbs
100
exothermic reaction
chemical reaction that results in heat given off as a product because the energy required to break bonds is less than the energy required to make new bonds
101
extraembryonic cells
cells located outside the embryo
102
facilitated diffusion
the diffusion of small, hydrophilic molecules across the cell membrane that requires a protein to help transport the molecule across the cell membrane
103
FADH
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; an electron carrier molecule that accepts high-energy electrons and one hydrogen ion to become FADH2
104
FADH2
Flavin adenine dinucleotide, an electron carrying molecule that donates electrons and hydrogens
105
fatty acids
the building blocks of lipids
106
feedback mechanism
a system that responds to a stimulus
107
Founder effect
occurs when a small group of individuals establish a new population away from the original and can have a reduced diversity compared to the original
108
frameshift mutation
a change in DNA that shifts the reading of the genetic message
109
frequency
the number of times a particular trait is seen in a population
110
G1 (first gap)
first step of interphase
111
G2 (second gap)
third step of Interphase
112
gamete
a sex cell; sperm or egg
113
gametes
sex cells, which are egg and sperm cells
114
gene
a section of a DNA molecule that codes for a protein
115
gene expression
the process in which information from a gene is used to make a protein
116
gene flow
when genes move from one population to another
117
gene regulation
the mechanisms that activate or repress the expression of a gene
118
genetic code
a code used by all known organisms that translates mRNA codons into amino acids
119
genetic drift
a change in the frequency of an allele in a population from generation to generation
120
genetic engineering
the process of altering the DNA of an organism to change its traits
121
genetically identical
when a cell or organism’s genetic material is an exact copy of the parent cell or organism’s genetic material, it is said to be genetically identical. Depending on gene expression, two cells may be genetically identical while possessing different attributes.
122
genetically modified organism (GMO)
an organism whose DNA has been manipulated
123
genotype
the genetic make-up for a particular trait
124
genotyping
process used to determine the variants in DNA by comparing to a reference sequence
125
glucose
a simple 6-carbon sugar
126
glycolysis
a process during which one glucose molecule is broken down into two 3-carbon molecules called pyruvates
127
Golgi apparatus
a membrane-bound organelle of the endomembrane system that processes, modifies, and sorts proteins coming from the rough endoplasmic reticulum in order to activate them and get them to their proper destination
128
haploid
the state of having half the number of chromosomes as compared to body cells
129
Hayflick limit
the number of times a cell can divide before it is no longer able to propagate
130
herbivore
an organism that eats only plants for energy
131
heredity
the passing of genetic material found in chromosomes from parents to offspring
132
heterochromatin
a type of darkly staining chromatin that is tightly packed and does not allow for the transcription and translation of genes
133
heterozygous
having two different alleles for a given gene
134
histone modification
changes made to the expression of certain genes when the histone proteins coil with chromatin to form the chromosomes
135
homologous chromosome
set of one maternal and one paternal chromosome that pair up during meiosis
136
homologous chromosomes
a pair of chromosomes that carry the same genes in the same locations along the chromosome
137
homozygous
having two identical alleles for a given gene
138
hybrid
the offspring of two organisms of different breeds, varieties, or species
139
hydrocarbon
a compound made of hydrogen and carbon atoms
140
hydrophilic
water loving
141
hydrophobic
water fearing
142
hypertonic
a solution with higher concentration of solutes compared to another solution
143
hypotonic
a solution with lower concentration of solutes compared to another solution
144
incomplete dominance
a non-Mendelian inheritance pattern that occurs when an allele for a specific trait is not completely expressed over its recessive allele
145
independent assortment
the sorting of one pair of homologous chromosomes does not affect the sorting of another
146
independent variable
variables that are changed on purpose in order to see how things change
147
inheritable genetic variation
changes in genetic material that can be passed to offspring
148
inheritable genetic variations
changes in genetic material that can be passed to offspring
149
insertion
a type of mutation that involves one or more bases being added to the DNA sequence
150
Insertion mutation
add extra base pairs to the DNA sequence making it longer than it should be to code specific proteins
151
interphase
the process during which the cell begins to grow.
152
intron
a portion of a gene that is not expressed into protein
153
invertebrate
an animal that does not have a spinal column; not having a vertebrae
154
isotonic
a solution with the same concentration of solutes compared to another solution
155
karyotype
a visual representation of the chromosomes within a cell
156
Krebs cycle
a series of chemical reactions that forms ATP from Acetyl CoA
157
Krebs cycle/citric acid cycle
the second step in breaking down glucose during cellular respiration, in which the products of glycolysis undergo several chemical reactions that release energy in the form of ATP, NADH and FADH2, and water and carbon dioxide as waste products
158
law of conservation of energy
states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; you can only change from one form of energy to another
159
law of conservation of matter
a scientific law that states that matter cannot be created or destroyed
160
light-dependent reactions
a series of reactions that take the light energy that is captured by the chlorophyll and convert it into chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP; consists of photosystem II, the electron transport chain, photosystem I and hydrogen ion movement and formation of ATP
161
light-independent reactions (calvin cycle)
a series of reactions that do not require the presence of light energy and that take the carbon from carbon dioxide and convert it to carbohydrates (glucose), amino acids, and other compounds
162
limitations
circumstances that control or reduce the complexity of the process
163
lipid
a biomolecule made of fatty acids
164
lipids
biomolecules that make up cell membranes, store energy, and act as chemical messengers in the body
165
macromolecule
a large molecule that contains many proteins
166
matter
anything that takes up space and has weight
167
mechanical digestion
any type of physical act related to the breakdown of food, including chewing, churning of the stomach, or absorbing nutrients
168
meiosis
a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
169
membrane-bound organelle
an organelle that is surrounded by a lipid bilayer similar to the cell membrane
170
Mendelian Traits
traits that are controlled by a single gene and have little variation
171
metabolic reactions
chemical reactions that allow organisms to survive (including cellular respiration), and to shuttle energy to other parts of the body that require more energy
172
Methylation
the attaching of methyl groups (made of one carbon and three hydrogen) to DNA to regulate gene expression
173
missense mutation
a type of substitution mutation in which the change in the DNA sequence changes the amino acid in the protein
174
mitochondria
membrane bound organelle that make most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell
175
mitosis
a type of cell division in which a parent cell copies itself, resulting in two identical daughter cells. Mitosis is the form of cell division used in all cell growth except sexual reproduction.
176
mitotic spindle
small structure within the cell that will help organize the chromosomes
177
model
a representation of something based on data and observations that is used by scientists to help predict the behavior of complex systems, especially those that are too small or too large to work with directly
178
model organsim
an organism that is representative of many within its category and is easy to grow and study in a lab
179
monosaccharide
a simple sugar made up of one sugar molecule
180
mRNA
a nucleic acid that carries the genetic code from DNA to a ribosome
181
multicellular
made of many cells
182
multiple alleles
a type of non-Mendelian inheritance pattern in which there are more than two alleles possible for a gene
183
multipotent cells
cells that can differentiate into many types of specialized cells
184
multipotent stem cell
a type of adult stem cell that can become many different types of specialized cells within a tissue or organ
185
mutation
a change in the sequence of bases in a gene
186
mutations
changes in DNA sequence
187
NAD+
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, an electron carrier used in metabolism
188
NADH
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotidehydrogen; electron carrying molecule that donates electrons and hydrogens
189
NADP+
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; an electron carrier molecule that accepts two high-energy electrons and one hydrogen ion to become NADPH
190
NADPH
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen; a product of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis used to power some of the reactions in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis
191
natural selection
the process in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
192
net ATP
the total amount of ATP after a cycle. If 2 ATP are used, and 4 ATP are gained, the net ATP is 2.
193
nitrogenous base
a part of the nucleotide that contains carbon rings with nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen; there are four nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine
194
nonsense mutation
a type of substitution mutation in which the change in the DNA sequence changes the mRNA codon to a stop codon
195
normal distribution
a distribution that has a bell-shaped curve with more traits being expressed in the middle and the extreme variations at each end
196
nuclear envelope
a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus and controls what enters and leaves the nucleus in eukaryotic cells
197
nucleic acid
a biomolecule made of nucleotides
198
nucleosome
a bead-like structure formed when DNA is wrapped around a single group of histone proteins in eukaryotes.
199
nucleotide
the building block of nucleic acids
200
nucleotides
the building blocks of nucleic acids
201
operon
a group of related genes that operates together as a functional unit in prokaryotic cells
202
organ
a collection of tissues that work together to perform a specific function or set of functions
203
organ system
a group of organs, each with different functions but a similar collective purpose
204
organelle
a small structure inside a cell that performs a specific function
205
osmosis
the diffusion of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane from higher concentration to lower concentration until equilibrium has been reached
206
Over-methylation
having too many methyl groups trying to regulate gene expression that can lead to neurological symptoms and disorders
207
oxidation
losing electrons
208
oxidation-reduction reaction
a chemical reaction that involves transferring electrons between two or more atoms
209
oxygen-poor
a substance that is lacking in oxygen, typically the blood after it travels through the body
210
oxygenated
a substance that contains oxygen, typically the blood
211
parent cell
the cell that divides to produce two daughter cells
212
passive transport
the movement of molecules across the cell membrane without the need for energy
213
periosteum
a layer of connective tissue that surrounds and protects a bone
214
peristalsis
a series of muscle contractions that move food through the gastrointestinal tract independent of gravity
215
phenotype
the observable characteristics of a trait
216
phosphate group
a chemical group that consists of phosphorus and sulfur that links the backbone of DNA together
217
photosynthesis
the process of changing light energy into stored chemical energy in the form of sugars
218
photosystem I
protein complex where the transfer of hydrogen ions to NADP+ to make NADPH occurs during photosynthesis
219
photosystem II
protein complex where light is absorbed, water is split, hydrogen ions are created, and oxygen is released during photosynthesis
220
pleiotropy
a type of non-Mendelian inheritance pattern in which one gene affects multiple phenotypes
221
pluripotent cells
the second type of stem cell to develop in an embryo
222
Point deletion
when one base is deleted in the DNA sequence which can lead to incorrect protein synthesis
223
point mutation
a change in a single point along the DNA sequence
224
polygenic inheritance
a trait is controlled by more than one gene
225
polygenic trait
a trait that is affected by multiple genes
226
polypeptide
a chain of amino acids formed during translation that will fold into a certain shape to make a protein
227
polysaccharide
a sugar made of 3 or more monosaccharides
228
population bottleneck
a sharp decline in a species population that leads to a decline in genetic diversity
229
post-translational control
the regulation of gene expression by the modification of proteins
230
producer
an organism that makes its own food
231
product
the output of a chemical reaction
232
prokaryote
a type of cell that lacks membrane-bound organelles
233
prokaryotic
a type of cell that does not contain membrane-bound organelles such as nuclei
234
prokaryotic cell
a type of cell, such as bacteria and archaea cells, that does not contain membrane-bound organelles
235
proliferation
the increase in number of cells by replication
236
promoter
a segment in DNA that binds with the enzyme RNA polymerase
237
protein
a biomolecule made of amino acids
238
protein synthesis
the cellular process through which proteins are made
239
proteins
made of amino acids; used to build body tissue and perform the life functions of cells
240
pulmonary loop
the pathway that blood takes from the heart to the lungs
241
Punnett square
a diagram that is used to show the combinations and frequencies of the different genotypes and phenotypes among the offspring of a cross, in accordance with Mendelian inheritance
242
qualitative data
data given as words, such as a description, a type of plant, or a condition
243
quantitative data
data given as numbers, such as a quantity, an amount, or a range
244
reactant
a substance involved in a chemical reaction
245
recessive
a trait that can only be expressed if there are two copies of the same allele of the gene
246
recessive trait
a trait that is expressed only if two alleles for the trait are present
247
reduction
gaining electrons
248
reliable source
a form of information that can be cited and provides consistently valid information supported by strong scientific evidence
249
reoxygenated
adding oxygen to a substance, typically the blood after it has left the lungs and returns to the heart
250
repair
in complex organisms, the process by which new cells replace old or dead ones
251
replicable
investigations that can be repeated with the same results
252
replication
the copying of genetic material
253
repressor
a regulatory protein and/or small molecule that inhibits transcription
254
respiratory system
the organ system that exchanges gases between an organism's internal and external environments
255
ribosome
an organelle, found either free-floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, where proteins are made
256
RNA polymerase
enzyme involved in making mRNA
257
RNA processing
a change RNA undergoes in the cell nucleus to become a mature mRNA molecule
258
RNA silencing
a way for the cell to control the translation of an mRNA using microRNAs; also known as RNA interference
259
RNA splicing
the process that removes introns from the mRNA before translation
260
rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
a membrane-bound organelle of the endomembrane system that is directly attached to the smooth ER and nuclear envelope that has ribosomes attached to it that synthesize proteins that will be inserted into a membrane, packaged into an organelle, or exported to the outside the cell
261
rRNA
a type of RNA, called ribosomal RNA, that is part of the ribosome
262
scientific explanation
a statement supported by evidence that provides a reason for a natural scientific phenomenon
263
scientific method
the method used to test scientific hypotheses
264
selective breeding
the process of choosing only plants or animals with desirable traits to reproduce
265
senescent
process in which cells exit the cell cycle and no longer divide but still carry out their function
266
senescent cell
a cell that can no longer reproduce itself
267
silent mutation
a type of substitution mutation in which the DNA sequence is altered but the amino acid sequence remains the same
268
sister chromatids
identical pairs of chromosomes formed during cellular replication
269
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
a membrane-bound organelle of the endomembrane system that is directly attached to the rough ER and nuclear envelope that produces lipids and steroids for membrane production
270
solute
a material that is dissolved in a solvent
271
solution
a mixture in which a solute is dissolved into a solvent
272
solvent
a material that dissolves the solute
273
somatic cells
all other cells in an organism except the reproductive cells
274
starch
a carbohydrate that is made of long glucose chains
275
stem cells
unspecialized cells capable of unlimited proliferation
276
stroma
fluid-filled space that surrounds the stacks of thylakoids inside the chloroplast, within which the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis occur
277
substitution mutation
a type of point mutation in which a single base in the DNA is changed into another base
278
systemic loop
the pathway of blood from the heart to other areas of the body
279
terminal differentiation
cells that exit the cell cycle to provide a particular function and can no longer divide
280
thermogenesis
the production of heat by living organisms as a by-product of metabolic activity
281
thylakoid
sack-like structure surrounded by a membrane inside chloroplasts where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur
282
tissue
cells with the same function connected together into structures
283
totipotent cells
the first stem cells to arise in a developing embryo
284
trachea
the air tube connecting the mouth to the lungs
285
traits
the physical characteristics of an organism
286
transcription
the process by which RNA polymerase copies a segment of DNA into mRNA
287
transcription factors
a class of proteins that regulates transcription in eukaryotes by interacting with RNA polymerase.
288
transcriptional control
the regulation of gene expression by preventing a gene from being transcribed into mRNA
289
translation
the process by which a ribosome produces protein based on the sequence of a mRNA
290
translational control
the regulation of gene expression by altering the lifespan of mRNA or the efficiency of translation
291
tRNA
a type of RNA molecule that decodes the mRNA sequence into a protein
292
Under-methylation
having too few methyl groups to help regulate gene expression that can lead to neurological symptoms and disorders
293
validity
accuracy
294
variants
small differences in DNA that can be detected from a cheek or saliva swab
295
variation
the different traits that are found in a population
296
vein
a blood vessel that carries blood back to the heart
297
vesicle
a small fluid filled sac within a cell
298
viable errors
changes that can be passed to living offspring
299
viral envelope
a membrane layer surrounding a virus that is made from the cell membrane of the host cell
300
virus
an organism consisting of only nucleic acid and protein that uses other cells in order to replicate and make more viruses
301
zygote
diploid cell that is created when the sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell
