Biology

Question 1

List the four chambers of the hearth and the valve that prevents backflow into each chamber

Answer 1

right atrium-tricuspid valve right ventricle- pulmonary valve (semilunar) left atrium-mitral (bicuspid) valve left ventricle-aortic valve (semilunar)

Question 2

Starting at the site of initiation, what are the structures involved in electrical conduction of the heart?

Answer 2

Sinoatrial node (SA node) atrioventricular node (AV node) Bundle of His Purkinje fibers

Question 3

What is the pathway of blood starting in the right atrium?

Answer 3

right atrium-tricuspid valve-right ventricle-pulmonary valve-pulmonary artery-lungs-pulmonary vein-left atrium-mitral valve-left ventricle-aortic valve-aorta arteries-arterioles-capillaries-venules-veins-inferior and superior vena cava-right atrium

Question 4

Explain hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure as it relates to fluid exchange

Answer 4

A patient has kidney disease and is losing large amounts of plasma proteins in the urine. Edema is showing in their legs as a result of a decrease in the oncotic pressure.

Question 5

What environments/situations shift the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to the right?

What does a shift to the right mean?

Answer 5

Exercising/Increase CO₂/Increase Temp/Increase (2,3 BPG)

Shift to right= decrease Hb Oxygen affinity

Excersising: As you work out you (start to) increase CO₂ circulating in your blood (Bohr effect, increase H⁺ -decrease pH) and therefore the binding of H⁺ to Hb lowers Hb Oxygen affinity. Oxygen can then be deposited in muscles.

Increase Temp: Tissue cells that have a high metabolic rate=produce heat=heat is transfered into blood/plasma=increase temp is correlated to cells working harder= they need more oxygen=Lower Hb Oxygen affinity so cells can have more oxygen

Increase in 2,3-BPG: The concentration of 2,3-BPG varies proportionately to the [H+]. 2,3-BPG stabilized Hb in its low affinity state.

Question 6

What is the Bohr Effect?

Answer 6

a decrease in the amount of oxygen associated with hemoglobin and other respiratory compounds in response to a lowered blood pH resulting from an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.

Question 7

What environments/situations shift the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to the left?

What does this shift mean?

Answer 7

Decrease Temperature/Decrease 2,3-BPG/Precense of fetal Hb (Hb_f)/High altitude

Shift left= increase Hb oxygen affinity

Decrease Temp: Low activity in tissue cells=do not produce as much heat and since (high temp is correlated to cells working harder) = they do not need as much oxygen=Increase Hb Oxygen affinity so blood can keep hold of it (not waste)

Decrease 2,3-BPG/Precense of fetal Hb (Hb_f): 2,3-BPG stabilizes Hb in low affinity state, so less 2,3-BPG means ustable in low affinity state and Hb prefers high affinity state. Hb_f has a higher affinity to O₂ than mom, so baby can grab it more tightly. Babies do not have as much 2,3-BPG and therefore are usually in a higher affinity state

High Altitude: Not enough CO₂ in blood-decrease in [H⁺] in blood (alkalosis) since binding of H+ to Hb lowers Hb Oxygen affinity, less [H⁺] = higher oxy affinity.

Not enough CO₂ in body bc at higher altitude less oxygen breathed in per breath.

Question 8

What happens to the body when poisoned with carbon monoxide?

Answer 8

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve moves to left (higher affinity) and flattens. CO binds with irriversable affinity to Hb. No oxygen is being released into muscles.

Question 9

What is the function of the antidiuretic hormone ? What kind of hormone is it and where is it produced?

Answer 9

“always digging holes” ADH; vasopressin

peptide

Produced in Hypothalamus (released by posterior pituitary)

Function: Conserve body water by stimulating reabsorption in kidneys by increasing permeability of collecting duct (reducing the loss of water in urine). ADH binds to receptors on cells in the collecting ducts of the kidney and promotes reasbsorption of water back into the circulation.

Question 10

What is the function of oxytocin? Where is is produced and what kind of hormone is it?

Answer 10

Peptide

Hypothalamus (released by the posterior pituitary)

stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk secretion during lactation; may promote bonding behavior

Question 11

Function of Triiodothyroxine and thyroxine? Where are they produced and what kind of hormone are they?

Answer 11

amino-acid derivatives

produced in the thyroid

Fnx: stimulate metabolic activity

Question 12

Function of Calcitonin? Where is it produced and what kind of hormone is it?

Answer 12

peptide hormone

produced in the thyroid (parafollicular or C cells)

Decreases blood calcium concentrations

*Calcitonin antagonizes PTH and causes calcium levels to decrease in the blood

Question 13

What is the Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)?

Answer 13

peptide hormone

produced in parathyroids

Function: Increases blood calcium concentrations. Causes calcium blood concentration to increase in response to low blood calcium levels.

PTH causes the osteoclasts in bone to break down bone, referred to as bone resorption, so that calcium can be released into the blood.

Question 14

Clucocorticoids (costisol and cortisone)

Answer 14

Steroid hormones produced in adrenal cortex

increases blood glucose concentrations; decreases protein synthesis, anti-inflammatory

Question 15

What metabolic processes function to raise blood glucose?

Answer 15

Processes that occur during starvation, such as glucagon secretion, gluconeogenesis and hydrolysis of triaclyglycerol

Question 16

What is gluconeogenesis? What about glycolysis? Glycogenolysis?

Answer 16

Gluconeogenesis: The pathway that serves to raise blood glucose levels (produced glucose during times of starvation) to meet the metabolic needs of the body

Glycolysis: The break down of glucose for the body to use as energy

Glycogenolysis: The break down of glycogen

Glycogen=stored form of glucose

Question 17

What are the differences and similarities between glucagon and insulin?

Answer 17

Both: produced in the pancrease and peptide hormones

Glucagon: stimulates glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis); increases blood glucose concentrations

Insulin: lowers blood glucose concentrations and promotes anabolic processes (constructing molecules by bringing in glucose from blood stream)

Question 18

Somatostatin

Answer 18

Peptide hormone produced in the pancrease

suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin (inhibiting hormone)

Question 19

Testosterone

Answer 19

Steroid hormone found in the testis and adrenal cortex.

Induces the development and maintenance of male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics

Question 20

Estrogen

Answer 20

Steroid hormone produced in the ovary (and found in the placenta).

induces the development and maintenance of female reproductive system and felace secondary sex characteristics

Question 21

Progesterone

Answer 21

Steroid hormone found in the ovaries and placenta.

promotes maintenance of the endometrium

Question 22

Melatonin

Answer 22

Peptide hormone produced in the pineal gland. Involved in circadian rythms

Question 23

Erythropoietin

Answer 23

Peptide hormone found in the Kidneys.

stimulates bone marrow to produce erythtocytes (red blood cells)

Question 24

Atrial natiuretic peptide (ANP)

Answer 24

Peptide hormone found in the heart (atria)

promotes salt and water excretion

Question 25

Thymosin

Answer 25

peptide hormone found in the thymus and stimulates t-cell development

Question 26

What are the three clasifications of hormones?

Answer 26

autocrine-self signaling

paracrine-nearby signaling

endocrine-far away signaling

Question 27

What are the three types of hormones ?

Answer 27

peptine (-in) made with amino acids, the -OH group means that it is polar and cannot cross the membrane, therefore depends on receptors and secondary messenger systems. Fast acting changes in the cell/short term effect

steroid (-ster) derived from cholesterol (non-polar). Able to cross membrane, must use carrier proteins to move inside the blood stream, slower acting but longer term

Amino Acid derivatived- made of one or two aa generally with modifications, can act as either peptide or steroid

Question 28

What happens to the concentration of soduim and potassium in the blood when you are dehydrated?

Answer 28

concentrations increase hyperkalemia and hypernatremia

Question 29

Myelin Sheeths

Answer 29

Myelin surrounds axons and helps speed up action potential transmission. Myelin acts as an insulator, swathing the axon so that the action potential onle needs to “refresh” itself at the nodes of Ranvier. Connect to physics: Myelin are poor conductors.

Question 30

Osteoclast v. Osteoblasts

Answer 30

osteoclast=break bones down, increase Ca+ in blood
osteoblast=buildbones up, use up Ca+ and decreases levels in blood stream

Question 31

Function of: golgi apparatus

Answer 31

Protein maturation and modification !

Question 32

Gap junctions vs. tight junctions vs. desmosome

Answer 32

All are used for cell to cell (intercellular) communication

The gap junctions, which are protein-lined tunnels, allow direct communication. Ex. Transmission of the depolarizing current from cell to cell across the chambers of the heart, so that the cells contract in unison. Leaky

Tight junctions, also known as occluding junctions prevent leakage of transported solutes and water and seals the paracellular pathway. Think giant rubber band

Desmoseom bind adjacent cells by anchoring to their cytoskeleton, primarily in epithelial tissue

Question 33

Long term or heavy smokers damage the cilia of their respiratory epithelia. What are some results from this?

Answer 33

1. increased infection by pathogenic organisms
2. increased obstructive lung disease (COPD)
3. decreased cough reflex

Respiratory cilia are responsible for moving mucus and trapped particles from the lungs and upper respiratory tract to the pharynx for disposal by swallowing. Nonmotile cilia in the respiratory epithelia are responsible for the cough reflex.

Question 34

What structures are formed from the endoderm layer?

Answer 34

Forms the “endernal/internal” organs

ex. tigestive tract, stomach, lungs, liver

Question 35

What structures develop from the mesoderm layer?

Answer 35

“means-o-derm” the means of transport, how things get around

the means to move…around the body (kidney, lymphatic, circulatory), the body itself (musculoskeletal), through time (gonads)

Question 36

What structures are formed from the ectoderm layer?

Answer 36

“attract-o-derm” (things that attract you to a person)

apperance (teeth, eyes, skin) and personality (CNS & PNS)

Question 37

What are the different stages of the cell cycle reproduction?

Answer 37

G1: Growth (most cells live here, this is interphase, makes proteins and organelles)

G0: The key checkpoint where the cell “decides” if it is going to actively divide or enter G0 is at the end of G1, right before S phase. Cells here are called quiescent cells

S: DNA replication

G2: Growth and prep for mitosis (makes microtubles)

M: Mitosis!

Question 38

Stabilizing v disruptive selection

Answer 38

stabilizing selection, one peak graph, results from maintaining one phenotype in the population. The mean remains the same and the distribution narrows.

disruptive selection would produce multiple phenotypes, which would make two peak graphs

Question 39

Explain the differences between microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments

Answer 39

microtubules: make of tubules, thickest, cell

Question 40

What are the hormones produced in the anterior pituitary gland? posterior pituitary?

Adrenal cortex v adrenal medulla

Answer 40

anterior pituitary: FLAT PEG (FSH, LH, ATCH, TSH, prolactin, endorphins, GH)

posterior pituitary: vassopressin and oxytocin

adrenal cortex: aldosterone

adrenal medulla: epi and norepi