BIOLOGY Flashcards
Phosphate
Phosphates are nutrient for plants and microorganism. If excess phosphate gets into rivers, lakes and ponds we see an increased growth of plants and various microorganisms, This would decrease severely the natural supply of dissolved 0XYGEN. This is called eutrophication.
A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and female horse. If the donkey has 2n=62 and the horse has 2n=64. the mule will have a 2N of?
The mule will have 63 chromosomes for the 2N number. Mules are infertile so they must have an odd number. A mammal needs an even number for reproduction. Haploid cell for the HORSE is 32 Haploid cell for the donkey is 31 so if you add 32+31=63 DIPLOID.
WHAT IS AN ALLIUM CELL?
ONION CELL They have large chromosome that cause a dark stain
FISHES
-All fishes have gills.(respire through oxygenated water over gills) -Modern fishes are Agnatha(Jawless), Chondricthyes(Jawed with a cartilage skeleton), and Osteichthyes( Jawed with a bone skeleton). -They are cold blooded. -The Opah fish is the only warm blooded fish.
Agnatha
-The most primitive fishes. -They are jawless fish( Lamprey and Hagfish)
Tattoo get to what level of the skin
Tattoo is a puncture woud to the dermis.
What is the largest internal organ?
LIVER( 3.5 Ibs)
THE LARGEST ORGAN IN THE ENTIRE BODY IS THE SKIN(20ft)
THE CANALICULI
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Lacunae
Canaliculi Is a communication canal within the bone that connects the lacunae of the osteon.It allows nutirents to reach the bone and waste taken out of the bone.
Lacunae are the small spaces between the lamellae which contain bone cells called osteocytes.
Lamella
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Periosteum
The concentric layer around the central Haversian canal called the Lamellae. They are very strong made from calcium, phosphate and collagen
The periosteum is a membrane that covers the outer surface of all bones. Periosteum allows for muscle tissue attachment and allow blood to pass in and out of the bone.
Volkmann’s Canal
small channels that run perpendicular to the surface of the bone, connect the blood and nerve supplies of adjacent Haversian canals together.
Dinasours
appeared around 230 millions years ago.
They were not mammals, because only mammals grow hair and nurse their young
Cytokinesis
- Contain Actin and Myosin
- Cytokinesis is different in plants, as no cleavage furrow forms, but a cell plate is formed
A new cell wall forms between the two cell plate membranes.
Second Messengers
Second Messengers Molecules are involved in the relay of signals at recptors on the cell surface to target molecules in the cytosol and nuclues.
examples
IP3(inositol triphosphate)
DAG(Diacyglycerol)
Cyclic AMP (CAMP)
Calcium
Partial Monosomy
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Partial trisomy
Partial Monosomy occurs when only part of one chromosome is lost
Partial trisomy - the addition of only a portion of another chromosome.
Microaerobes
Microaerobes require oxygen but are harmed by high amount of oxygen
Penicillin and its effect on bacteria
Penicillins interefere with the bacteria’s ability to synthesis it cell wall
Lungs
The left lung has 2 lobes and the right has 3 lobes. The right lung is bigger than the left lung.
The left lung has a cardiac notch to allow room for the heart
Microarray technology
Microarray technology allows a researcher to examine many genes and determine which are expressed in a particular cell type.
This technique will allow you to determine gene expression.
DNA microarrays can be used to detect DNA or RNA that may or may not be translated in proteins.
Monotreme
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Marsupial
a mammal that lays eggs.ex. platypus
Marsupial are mammals that complete embryonic development in a pouch.
Chitin
is a polysaccharide containing glucose molecules with nitrogen groups attached.
It is the cell walls of many fungi, forming the exoskeleton of arthropods
ileocecal valve
is a sphincter muscle valve that separates the small intestine and the large intestine.
Prevents the content of the large intestine from entering the small intestine and vice versa.
Colchicine
Colchine is an alkaloid that inhibits the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules( spindle apparatus). Mitosis would stop if colchine is present.
Thyroid Gland
- Thyroid Gland produce thyroid Hormones which contain iodine.
- secrete calcitonin, which lowers calcium levels in the blood.
- produce the thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
Kidney
- Blood enters the glomerulus via the afferent arteriole and leaves via the efferent arteriole.
- If the efferent arteriole is constricted blood cannot flow passed the constricted point; this causes an increase in the glomerular pressure as blood backs up into the glomerulus consequently the glomerular hydrostatic pressure is increased and the filtration rate rises.
- The opposite will occur if the afferent arteriole is constricted; blood flow is diminished, hydrostatic pressure is decreased, and filtration decreases.
- Sympathetic innervation (stimulate) of the kidneys primarily will affect the afferent arterioles and causes constriction and would reduce the urine output.
Angiosperm
Angiosperm undergoes double fertilization of the egg nucleus and of the central nucleus.
One sperm nucleus fertilizes the egg; we form a 2N zygote. Now, the other sperm nucleus fertilizes the two haploid central nuclei forming a 3N endosperm nucleus, which is a Nutritive tissue.
The endosperm will provide nutrients to the developing embryo.
EARTHWORM
An earthworm is an invertebrate. Their moist skin is needed for 02 to passively diffuse.
Connective Tissue
Binds and support different type of tissues and organ.
Connective tissue is derived from mesoderm which consists of various types of cells like the fibroblasts, mast cells, and macrophages.
Some connective tissues such as bone and cartilage are rigid, whereas adipose connective tissue and fibrous connective tissue are more flexible.
Identical twins are made possible due to
Indeterminate cleavage of a zygote will allow a human twin to be produced. In this type of cleavage, each cell that is made retains its capacity to develop into a viable embryo.
HEPATIC VEIN
The hepatic vein will allow blood to leave the liver. The hepatic vein will empty into the inferioir vena cava allowing the blood to be returned to the general circulation.
REMEMBER THAT A VEIN BRINGS BLOOD BACK TO THE HEART.
HEPATIC: LIVER
Discoloration of the skin (Jaundice) and Liver problem
Liver problems can prevent the normal removal of bile pigments via the digestive tract. If bile pigments such as bilirubin get into circulation, they can cause skin discoloration as seen in Jaundice.
What are 4 distinct altitudinal Zones
- Lowland
- Montane
- Sub-alpine
- Alpine
Regarding elevation, Alpine (highest elevation) >sub-alpine>montane>Lowland
Altitudinal Zones
- they depend on factors such as sunlight, soil composition, temperature and elevation.
- Spruce, Fir, and Pine trees are especially noted in the montane zone.
- Species number decreases with increasing elevation.
The Marine Zones
The marine enviroment is classified on three criteria:
water depth,
distance from the shore
light penetration.
-Light does not enter the aphotic zone, hence no photosynthes.
The pelagic Zone: Open waters of any depth
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intertidal zone
-The area where land and sea meet is the .
-The photic zone
-The photic zone is where there is light; photosynthesis is seen. Many fishes , phytoplankon and zooplankton are seen.
benthic zone
-The bottom of the water is called the benthic zone, it is the sea floor.
- Retina
- Ciliary Muscle
- Papillary Muscle
- Papillae
Retina: Rods and Cones
Ciliary Muscle: Adjusts lens shape in the eye
Papillary Muscle: Muscle associated with the heart
Papillae: Projections on tongue surface
Echinoderm
They include starfish, sea urchins and sea cumcumber
Adults display radial symmetry.
No segmentation
They are invertebrates.
Myeloma
Myeloma cell is a cancer cell with the ability for indefinite growth.
If a lymphocyte is fused with a modified myeloma cell, a hybridoma cell results. Which can produce a desired antibody.
Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are modified fatty acids which help induce fever, pain sensation and inflammation. Aspirin inhibits Prostaglandins activity.
The Pancrease
The pancreas can function as an endocrine and exocrine gland.
The Exocrine tissue produces lipase, amylases and proteases and exports them to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct.
The Endocrine fuction is to produce hormones such as insulin and glucagon.
The adrenal glands
The adrenal glands make hormones such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol and aldosterone.
Norepinephrine can also act as a neurotransmitter and allow glucose release into the blood stream.
Autosomal recessive
- Autosomal recessive diseases require that the individual have two copies of the mutant gene.
- Skips a Generation. Unaffected parents can have affected children.
- ex. sickle cell(chromosome 11), cystic fibrosis(chromosome 7),PKU(chromosome 12), Albinism
(H) healthy= Dominant
(h) disorder= Recessive
HH= healthy individual (homozygous Dominant )
Hh= Healthy(carrier) [Heterozygous )
hh= disorder. (homozygous recessive)
PREGNANCY
- The first trimester is the main period in which organs develop. It is also when it is the most sensitive.
- The embryo is called a fetus at about 8 weeks.
- During the second timester, the fetus is very active and will grow so pregnancy becomes noticable.
-A trimester is 12-13 weeks. There are 3 trimester.
Helicases
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Restriction endonuclease
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DNA ligase
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Dehydrogenases
Helicases is for unwinding a DNA duplex .
Endonucleases have the ability to cut DNA only at a particular sequence of nucleotides.
DNA ligase is involved in repairing discontinuities in DNA.
Dehydrogenases are involved in redox reaction.
Endosporulation
is the process by which endospores are produced.
Endospores are resistant to extremes of temperature, chemicals, toxins, detergent, as well as radiation. (Adaptation for survival).
Endospore will be comprised of bacterial cytoplasm, DNA, and surrounded by a tough coat . This strategy is used by gram postive bacterials.
Immune System
Natural killer cells are not phagocytic.
Lymph nodes contain B cells, T-cells and Macrophages.
Macrophages are the largest phagocyctes.
FIXED ACTION PATTERN
Fixed action patterns are basically actions that any species is “programmed” to do. They aren’t really taught to do it, but they just do it anyways.
Ex. spider spin web, animals flock together,
Spleen
The spleen is an organ that makes lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores the blood cells and destroys old blood cells.
Lymph is a colorless, watery fluid that travels through the lymph system and carries lymphocytes
The circulatory system
Is involved in removing excess fluid pathogens, dead blood cells, and cellular debris from the cells and the tissue spaces between them. It helps the immune system in destroying pathogens. They have one way valves. The lymph enters the subclavian vein and becomes part of the plsma in the blood.
During embryonic development, the individual digits separate after being fused. What is the cause of this?
A. Atropy
B. Aplasia
C. Apoptosis
D. Cell-cell fusion
Programmed cell death or apoptosis can help sculpt hands and feet as well as eyes during embryonic development. The cells between these structures die and separation occurs.
ex. A frog lost its tail when it was a tadpole, because apoptosis occured and caused the loss of a tail.
Introns
Introns are removed from the primary transcript during post-transcriptional process.
The second law of thermodynamics
- Systems tend to move towards greater disorder(entropy)
- Energy transfers are always accompanied by some amount of loss.
- Energy is required for highly organized systems.
- For most systems heat represents lost energy
CATABOLISM
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ANABOLISM
Catabolism refers to the breakdown of nutrients to provide energy.
Anabolism is the synthesis of biomolecules from simpler compounds.
ATP ⇒cyclic AMP.
The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is called adenylyl cyclase. This enzyme is inactive until which hormone binds?
- Adenylyl cyclase is inactive until epinephrine binds to the receptor protein.
- The cyclic AMP functions as a second messenger.
Darwinian fitness
Darwinian fitness refers to the contribution that an individual will make to the gene pool of the next generation. The greater the number of fertile offspring, the more likely Darwinian fitness can be measured.
Coelomates
Coelomates are animals with a true coelom (body cavity) lined by tissue that is derived from the mesoderm..
- Vertebrates as well as arthropods and annelids are coelomates.
Pseudocoelomates
Pseudocoelomates include the roundworms. These organisms show a cavity that is NOT COMPLETELY lined by tissues derived from the mesoderm.
Acoelomates
lack a cavity between their gut and outer body wall and include the flatworms(platyhelminthes).
Sickle Cell Anemia
Sickle cell anemia is a mutation that occurs on the beta chain; a Glutamic acid residue is replaced by a Valine.
Patients with sickel cell anemia have a homzygous recessive alleles. It is an autosomal recessive disease.
Sarcoma and Carcinoma
- Sarcoma occurs only in connective tissue.A tumor that occurs in the bones and soft tissues.
- Carcinoma occurs in epithelial tissue.
Egg anatomy
Most animal eggs have polarity.
Yolk is most concentrated in the vegetal pole and least concentrated in the animal pole.
Ectodermal cells form the neural plate.
The folding of the neural plate gives rise to the neural tube that will become the brain and spinal cord.
The Gray crescent will establish the body axis, and is an area located on the side of the egg oposite the sperm penetration.
Ion diffusion
- All cells have voltages across their plasma membranes and act like a battery.
- Two forces act to drive ion diffusion: A chemical force due to the ions concentration gradient and the electrical force. Together this is called the electrochemical gradient.
Gymnosperm
- -a plant that has seeds unprotected by an ovary or fruit.
- Gymnosperms are flowerless plants that produce cones and seeds.
- The term gymnosperm literally means “naked seed,” as gymnosperm seeds are not encased within an ovary.
- Gymnosperms include the conifers, cycads, ginkgo, spruce, pine, fir trees
Angiosperm
- a plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel.
- They are vascular plants.
- Angiosperms include fruits, flowering plants, maple, oak and grass
- They are divided into monocots and dicots.
monocots and dicots.
Monocots have only one seed leaf inside the seed coat. It is often only a thin leaf. Monocots generally have parallel veins.
Dicots have two seed leaves inside the seed coat. They are usually rounded and fat. Dicots have leaves that are netlike veins.
Life cycle of plants
Land plants exhibit an alternation of generations in which the gametophyte ( haploid multi-celled stage) alternates with a diploid multi-celled stage, the sporophyte
- The Dominant stage of life cycle of mosses is the gametophytes.
Which white blood cell listed below is the least numerous?
- Neutrophils are the most abundant.
Basophils are the fewest.
Leukocytes[BENLM]
Monocyte- Agranular
Neutrophile-granular
Lymphocytes- Agranular
Basophil- granular
Eosinophil-granular
UREA
Mammals and adult amphibians excrete urea, while marine animals excrete ammonia.
Birds, insects, and reptiles excrete uric acid. Uric acid requires little water for its excretion and actually forms a precipate.
The vasa recta is a capillary system associated with the loop of Henle and is invovled in the concentrating the urine.
Blastopore
The opening of the archenteron in the gastrula that develops into the mouth in protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes.
Somastostatin
Somastostatin suppresses the release of gastrointestinal hormones such as gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin. This suppression will decrease the rate of gastric emptying along with reducing blood flow within the intestines.
Therefore it inhibits many functions of the GI tract.
Ecological succession
Ecological succession involves an area in which communities replace each other in a predictable manner.
Sand dunes become woodlands.
Ponds become grasslands or even deserts.
Primary succession
Primary succession occurs when organisms colonize an area devoid of life, usually after a catastrophic natural event that leaves the land barren.
Areas uninfluenced by preexisting community.
ex. a barren rocky area. Lichens( algae and fungus) settle in the area
secondary succession
Most ecological succession occurs as secondary succession.
This term describes the process in which an established community is replaced by a different set of plants and animals.
ptre exiting community has been disrupted
Secondary succession is gradual, always moving toward the climax community.
ex. wildfires, flooding
Climax communities
Climax communities are is the final stage and most stable stage of ecological succession. Population exit in balance with each other and the enviroment. It is the living(biotic) part of the ecosystem.
Overall, a climax community is very dependent on rainfall, soil, altitude and temperature.
A climax community persists until a major climatic or geological change upsets the equilibrium.
Intermediate stage
an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax community.
It is a seral community
Archegonia
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Antheridia
plants
Antheridia - male gametangia are found in there and represent the sperm- producing structures.
Eggs are found in Archegonia. The eggs are fertilized in this female gametangia.
Diapedesis
Diapedesis is the phenomenon by which white blood cells adhere to and pass through the endothelium of the blood vessels as a result of injury or trauma.
Detritivores
Detritivores include earthworms, slugs, millipedes, woodlice and crabs. These organisms consume dead or decaying organic matter(detritus).
Essentially, these organisms are decomposers
Multiple allele system
if more than two forms of alleles exist for a gene locus.
example the ABO blood groups exemplify multiple alleles.
Epistasis
A geneat one locus affect the expression of a gene at a second locus.
One gene completely masks another gene.
-Gene interactions occurs when two or more different genes influence the outcome of a single trait.
Ex. Albino
Pleiotropy
- One gene affects more than one phenotypic character.
ex. dwarfism and gigantism
Trisonomy
Trisonomy is a type of aneuploidy (an abnormal number of chromosome ) inwhich a person has a 3 copies of a chomosome instead of two.
Arthropods
Many biologist believe that arthropods evolved from Annelids or shared a common ancestor.
jointed appendages allowed arthropods to become highly successful.
Arthropods use hemolymph .
Stress on a Bone
Upon stressing a bone, bone forming cells called osteoblasts deposit collagen and release calcium phosphate to strengthen the bone . The mineral hydroxyapetite is produced.
Glomerular Filtrate
Glomerular filtrate lacks large proteins. The first step in urine formation is the filtration of substances through the glomerular membrane into Bowman’s Capsule.
Glomerular filtrate contains water, glucose, urea, amino acids, and ion such as K+, Na+, Cl-
Ecosystem is self sustaining and stable if
- The abiotic factors and biotic community are relatively stable.
- There is a constant energy source and a biotic community incorporating this energy into organic compounds.
- Materials are cycled between the abiotic factors and biotic community.
