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HESI > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Hierarchic organization

A
  1. kingdom(largest & most inclusive)
  2. phylum
  3. class
  4. order
  5. family
  6. genus
  7. species (most restrictive)
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2
Q

scientific method

A
  1. observation
  2. hypothesis- statement or explanation of certain events
  3. experiment- repeatable procedure of gathering data to support or refute the hypothesis
  4. conclusion- data and its significance are explained
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3
Q

water

A
  • 2 H atoms are covalently bonded to 1 O atom
  • intermolecular bonding
  • high specific heat- amount of heat to raise the temp of 1g of that molecule by 1C
  • H bonding of water allows water to resist shifts in temp change
  • oceans stabilize the climate
  • polarity of water allows it to work as a versatile solvent
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4
Q

water; cohesive vs. adhesive

A
  • H bonding results in these properties
  • cohesive- ability of a molecule to stay bonded or attracted to another moelcule of the same substance
  • adhesion- the ability of water to bond to or attract other molecules or substances
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5
Q

carbohydrates

A
  • long chains or polymers of sugars
  • storage, strucutre and energy
  • backbone of DNA and RNA
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6
Q

fatty acids (lipids)

A
  • saturated fats: have no double bonds in hydrocarbon tail, solid, considered detrimental and causes cardiovascular problems
  • unsaturated fats: have double bonds, liquid
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7
Q

phospholipids (lipids)

A
  • contain 2 fatty acids bonded to a phosphate group
  • the phosphate group is charged; polar and soluble in water
  • the hydrocarbon tail of the fatty acid is non polar and non soluble in water
  • helps create a barrier that protects the cell
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8
Q

proteins

A
  • contribute to cell function
  • polymers of 20 molecules called amino acids
  • largest of the biological molecules
  • enzymes- act to catalyze different reactions or processes
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9
Q

nucleic acids

A
  • components of the molecules of inheritance
  • DNA: code that is necessary for replication (A with T and C with G)
  • RNA: used in the transfer of info from DNA to protein level. messenger in most species of the genetic code
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10
Q

metabolism

A
  • sum of all chemical reactions
  • takes place in a series of steps: metabolic pathway
  • high energy to low energy
  • all reactions catalyzed by enzymes
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11
Q

prokaryotic cells

A

-lack a nucleus and do not contain membrane bound organelles

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12
Q

eukaryotic cells

A
  • have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and a series of membrane-bound organelles that carry out the functions of the cell as directed by the genetic information contained in the nucleus
  • more complex
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13
Q

nucleus

A

-contains the DNA in organized masses called chromosomes

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14
Q

chromosomes

A

-contain all of the genetic information for the regeneration (repair and replication) of the cell, as well as all instructions for the function of the cell

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15
Q

ribosomes

A
  • organelles that read the RNA produced in the nucleus and translate the genetic instructions to produce proteins
  • bound ribosomes are found attached to the ER
  • free ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm
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16
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • membranous organelle found attached to the nuclear membrane
  • rough ER- covered in ribosomes, and responsible for protein synthesis and membrane production
  • smooth ER- not covered in ribosomes, functions in detoxification and metabolism of multiple molecules
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17
Q

golgi apparatus

A
  • packaging, processing and shipping the organelle

- transports proteins from the ER throughout the cell

18
Q

lysosomes

A
  • intracellular digestion
  • packed with hydrolytic enzymes, the lysosome can hydrolyze proteins, fats, sugars and nucleic acids
  • normally contain an acidic environment
19
Q

vacuoles

A
  • membrane enclosed structures with various functions
  • phagocytosis- uptake of food through the cell membrane creating vacuoles
  • plant cells have central vacuoles, functions as storage, waste disposal, protection and hydrolysis
20
Q

mitochondria

A
  • produces cells energy

- most eukaryotic cells and is the site of cellular respiration

21
Q

chloroplasts

A
  • produces cells energy

- found in plants and is the site of photosynthesis

22
Q

cellular membrane

A
  • contributes to protection, communication and the passage of substances into and out of the cell
  • consist of bilayer of phospholipids with proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins
  • phospholipids are amphipathic, this bilayer creates a hydrophobic region between two layers of lipids, making it selectively permeable
23
Q

cellular respiration equation

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O

24
Q

steps of cellular respiration

A
  • ATP and NADH are required
    1. glycolysis- conversion of glucose to pyruvate
  • takes place in the cytosol and produces 2 molecules of ATP, 2 molecules of pyruvate and 2 molecules of NADH
    2. pyruvate is transported into a mitochondrion and used in CAC
  • occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria
  • for a single consumed glucose molecule, 2 ATP molecules, 6 carbon dioxide and 6 NADH are produced
    3. begins with the oxidation of the NADH molecule to produce oxygen and finally produce water, in steps of ETC
  • for every glucose molecule, 28 to 32 ATP molecules can be produced
  • overall ATP production 32-36 ATP molecules for every glucose molecule consumed
25
Q

Photosynthesis

A
  • reverse of cellular respiration
  • equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
  • energy needed to produce glucose
  • light reactions and the calvin cycle
26
Q

light reactions: photosynthesis

A
  • convert solar energy to chemical energy
  • cell accomplishes the production of ATP by absorbing light and using that energy to split a water molecule and transfer the electron, creating NADPH and producing ATP
  • these molecules are then used in the Calvin Cycle to produce sugar
27
Q

Binary fission: asexual reproduction

A
  • involves bacterial cells
  • the chromosome binds to the plasma membrane, where it replicates
  • then as the cell grows, it pinches in two, producing two identical cells
28
Q

Mitosis: asexual reproduction

A
  • occurs in 5 stages before pinching in two in a process called cytokinesis
  • 5 stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
    1. prophase- the chromosomes are separate, and each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids
    2. prometaphase- the nuclear envelope begins to disappear, and the chromosome begin to attach to the spindle that is forming along the axis of the cell
    3. metaphase- all chromosomes aligning along the metaphase plate or center of the cell
    4. anaphase- begins when cells start to separate, the chromatids are considered separate chromosomes
    5. telophase- chromosome gather on either side of the now separating cell
  • cytokinesis is separate from phases of mitosis
  • the cell pinches in two, forming two separate identical cells
29
Q

sexual reproduction

A
  • 2 cells contribute genetic material, resulting in significantly greater variation
  • 2 cells find and fertilize each other randomly, making it virtually impossible for cells to be alike
30
Q

sexual reproduction: meiosis

A
  • 2 stages Meiosis I and II, resulting in 4 daughter cells
  • each daughter cell contains half as many chromosomes as the parent
  • interphase- when the chromosomes are duplicated and the cell prepares for division
31
Q

mitosis vs. meiosis

A
  • both have the same 4 stages
  • biggest difference is in prophase I
  • in meiosis during prophase I, nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes cross at numerous locations
  • small sections of DNA are transferred between these chromosomes resulting in increased genetic variation
  • the remaining phases are the same as those in mitosis with the exception of chromosome pairs separate, not the chromosomes themselves
32
Q

genetics

A
  • using garden pea plants, Gregor Mendel discovered the basic principles of genetics
  • he was able to determine that the observable traits in peas were passed from one generation to the next
33
Q

genetics: alleles

A
  • in Mendels study, it was found that for every trait expressed in a sexually reproducing organism, there are at least two alternative versions of a gene (allele)
  • versions can be dominant or recessive
  • if both alleles are the same then they are homozygous
  • if both alleles are different they are heterozygous
34
Q

Punnett square

A
  • it is possible to predict the genotype (combination of the alleles) and the phenotype (what traits will be expressed)
35
Q

DNA

A

-the genetic material of a cell and is the vehicle of inheritance

36
Q

structure of DNA

A
  • 1953, Watson and Crick described DNA as a double helical structure that has 4 nitrogenous bases; A, T, G and C
  • each base forms a H bond with another base on the complementary strand
37
Q

replication of DNA

A
  • the strands are separated
  • with the help of several enzymes, new complementary strands to each of the two original strands are created
  • this produces 2 new double-stranded segments of DNA identical to the original
  • when DNA makes a copy of itself, it “unzips” to expose nucleotide bases
  • enzyme DNA polymerase unzips it
  • after all bases have new pairs, 2 identical DNA molecules will be ready for distribution to the two daughter cells
38
Q

DNA: transcription

A
  • each gene along a strand of DNA is a template for protein synthesis
  • begins with transcription
  • in this process, an RNA strand, complementary to the original strand of DNA is produced
  • the piece of genetic material produced is mRNA
39
Q

DNA: mRNA

A
  • functions as the messenger from the original double helix in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytosol or on the rough ER
  • here is where translation happens
40
Q

DNA: translation

A
  • ribosomes act as the site of translation
  • the mRNA slides through the ribosome
  • every group of 3 bases along the stretch of RNA is a codon, and each codes for a specific amino acid
  • anitcodon is located on a unit called tRNA
41
Q

DNA: tRNA

A
  • anticodon is located on here
  • tRNA carries a specific amino acid
  • it binds to the ribosome when its codon is sliding through the ribosome
  • a protein is a polymer of amino acids, and multiple tRNA molecules bind in order and released by the ribosome
  • each amino acid is bonded together and released by the preceding tRNA molecule, creating a elongated chain of amino acids
  • chain ends at a stop codon
  • at this point the chain is released into the cytoplasm, and the protein folds onto itself and forms its complete conformation
  • as amino acids are brought into the proper sequence, they are joined by peptide bonds and form a long strands of polypeptides

HESI (3 decks)

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