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HESI > Anatomy & Physiology > Flashcards

Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

body planes

A
  • cut along the median plane is a sagittal section
  • cut along the transverse plane is a cross-section
  • cut along the coronal plane is a frontal section
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2
Q

anatomic position

A
  • body is erect
  • feet are slightly apart
  • head is held high
  • palms are facing forward
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3
Q

Histology

A

the study of tissues

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4
Q

tissue

A

a group of cells that act together to perform specific functions
- 4 fundamental tissues: epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue

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5
Q

epithelial cells

A

cover, line and protect the body and its internal organs

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6
Q

connective tissue

A

the framework of the body, providing support and structure for the organs

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7
Q

nerve tissue

A

composed of neurons and connective tissue cells that are referred to as neuroglia

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8
Q

muscle tissue

A

classified as voluntary muscle (skeletal muscles) or involuntary (smooth and cardiac muscle tissue)

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9
Q

cell

A
  • the basic unit of life and he building block of tissues and organs
  • within the cell each organelle has its own function
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10
Q

mitosis

A
  • necessary for growth and repair

- DNA is duplicated and distributed evenly to two daughter cells

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11
Q

meiosis

A
  • takes place in the gonads (ovaries and testes)
  • the chromosome number is reduced from 46 to 23
  • when egg and sperm unite in fertilization, the zygote will have the correct number of chromosomes
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12
Q

epidermis

A
  • the outermost protective layer made of dead, keratinized epithelial cells
  • layers (outer to inner): stratum corneum, the stratum lucidum, the stratum granulosum, and the inner most stratum germinativum (stratum basale and stratum spinosum) (where mitosis occurs)
  • epidermal cells contain the protein pigment melanin, which protects against radiation from the sun
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13
Q

dermis

A
  • the underlying layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings and the associated skin structures
  • rest on the subcutaneous tissue that connects the skin to the superficial muscles
  • inner layer of skin is the dermis, composed of fibrous connective tissue with blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands
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14
Q

sweat glands

A
  • 2 types
  • regulate body temperature by releasing a watery secretion that evaporates from the surface of the skin, known as an eccrine gland
  • armpits and groin area are from the apocrine secretion. contains bits of the cytoplasm from the secreting cell
  • attracts bacteria and bacteria on the skin causes body odor
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15
Q

sebaceous glands

A
  • release an oily secretion (sebum) through the hair follicles that lubricates the skin and prevents drying.
  • sebum is produced by holocrine secretion
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16
Q

functions of the skeletal system

A

support, movement, blood cell formation (hemopoiesis), protection of internal organs, detoxification (removal of poisons), provision for muscle attachment, and mineral storage (calcium and phosphorus)

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17
Q

long bone

A

-has an irregular epiphysis at each end, composed of mainly spongy bone (cancellous) bone, and a shaft or diaphysis, composed mainly of compact bone

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18
Q

osteoblast

A
  • cells that form compact bone

- when they become fixed in the dense bone matrix, they stop dividing but continue to maintain bone tissue as osteocytes

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19
Q

axial skeleton

A
  • consist of the skull, vertebral column, 12 pairs of ribs, and sternum
  • including the 6 paired bones of the ear., the skull is comprised of 28 bones
  • 14 facial bones, 14 cranial vault bones
  • facial bones include, 2 maxillary, 2 zygomatic bones, one mandible (the only moveable bone of the skull), 2 palatines, one vomer, 2 lacrimal and 2 inferior nasal conchae
  • bones of the cranium are the single occipital, frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid and the paired parietal, temporal, and ossicles of the ear (malleus, incus and stapes)
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20
Q

facial bones

A

facial bones include, 2 maxillary, 2 zygomatic bones, one mandible (the only moveable bone of the skull), 2 palatines, one vomer, 2 lacrimal and 2 inferior nasal conchae

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21
Q

cranial bones

A

bones of the cranium are the single occipital, frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid and the paired parietal, temporal, and ossicles of the ear (malleus, incus and stapes)

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22
Q

vertebral column

A
  • divided into 5 subsections
  • 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral vertebrae (which fuse to for the sacrum) and the coccygeal vertebrae (known as the tailbone)
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23
Q

appendicular skeleton

A
  • includes the girdles and the limbs
  • upper portion includes pectoral or shoulder girdle, the clavicle and scapula and the upper extremity
  • bones of the arm are the humerus, the radius and ulna, carpals (wrist bones), the metacarpals (bones of the hand) and the phalanges (bones of the fingers)
  • lower portion includes the pelvic girdle or os coxae
  • each os coxae consist of fused ilium, ischium and pubis
  • bones of the lower extremity include the femur (thighbone), the tibia and fibula, the tarsals (ankle bones), the metatarsals (ones of the foot) and the phalanges
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24
Q

muscular system

A
  • muscles produce movement by contracting in response to nervous stimulation
  • muscle contraction results from the sliding together of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle cell or fiber
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25
Q

myofibrils

A

-each muscle cell consists of myofibrils, which in turn are made up of smaller units called sarcomeres

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26
Q

muscle contraction

A

-calcium and ATP must be present for a muscle to contract

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27
Q

voluntary muscles

A
  • they are under conscious control
  • skeletal muscles work in pairs; the muscle that executes a given movement is the prime mover, whereas the muscle that produces the opposite movement is the antagonist
  • other muscles known as the synergist may work in cooperation with the prime mover
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28
Q

flexor vs. extensor muscles

A
  • reduce the angle at the joint

- increase the angle

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29
Q

abductor vs. adductor muscles

A
  • draw a limb away from the midline

- return the limb back towards the body

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30
Q

nervous system

A
  • consist of the brain, spinal cord and nerves
  • this system enables us to perceive many of the changes that take place in our external and internal environments and to respond to those changes
  • makes body movements by skeletal muscles possible by supplying them with nerve impulses that cause contraction
  • works closely with endocrine glands, correlating and integrating body functions such as digestion and reproduction
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31
Q

parts of a neuron

A
  • cell body, axon, and dendrites
32
Q

dendrites (neuron)

A
  • transmit the impulse toward the cell body and axons transmit the impulse away from the cell body
33
Q

central nervous system

A
  • compromised of the spinal cord and brain
  • sensory (afferent) neurons transmit nerve impulses toward the CNS
  • motor (efferent) neurons transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS toward the effector organs such as muscles, glands and digestive organs
34
Q

peripheral nervous system

A
  • all other neurons in the body
35
Q

major parts of the brain (NS)

A
  • cerebrum (movement and sensory input)
  • cerebellum (muscular coordination
  • medulla oblongata (controls many vital functions such as respiration and heart rate
36
Q

spinal cord (NS)

A
  • 18 inches long and extends from the base of the skull (foramen magnum) to the first or second lumbar vertebrae (L1 or L2)
  • 31 pairs of spinal nerves exit the spinal cord
  • simple (spinal) reflexes are those in which nerve impulses travel through the spinal cord only and do not reach the brain
37
Q

endocrine system

A
  • assist the NS in homeostasis
  • plays important roles in growth and sexual maturation
  • 2 systems meet at the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
  • the hypothalamus governs the pituitary and is in turn controlled by the feedback of hormones in the blood
38
Q

endocrine and nervous system

A
  • they coordinate and control the body, but ES has a more long-lasting and widespread effects
39
Q

hormones

A
  • are chemical messengers that control the growth, differentiation and metabolism of specific target cells
  • 2 major groups;
    1. steroids- enter the target cells and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus
    2. non-steroid hormones- some are protein hormones( many of these remain at the cell surface and act through a second messenger, usually a substance called AMP
  • most hormones affect cell activity by altering the rate of protein synthesis
40
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • master gland
    -attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk called the infundibulum
    -2 major portions
    1. the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
    -these hormones are called tropic hormones because they act mainly on other endocrine glands
    -STH or GH
    -ACTH
    -TSH
    -FSH
    LH
    2. posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
    -hormones released from here are oxytocin (the labor hormone) and ADH
    -other endocrine glands include the thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas and gonads
41
Q

whole blood consist of:

A
  • 55% plasma and 45% formed elements: erythrocytes (RBC), leukocytes (WBC) and platelets
  • all of the formed elements are produced from stem cells in red bone marrow
42
Q

erythrocytes (RBC, circulatory system)

A
  • are modified for transport of oxygen

- most of this oxygen is bound to the pigmented protein hemoglobin

43
Q

leukocytes

A
  • 5 types
  • distinguished on the basis of size, appearance of the nucleus, staining properties, and presence or absence of visible cytoplasmic granules
  • WBC are active in phagocytosis (neutrophils and monocytes) and antibody formation (lymphocytes)
44
Q

platelets

A

-are active in the process of blood clotting

45
Q

Blood

A

-serves to transport oxygen and nutrients to body cells and to carry away carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes

46
Q

plasma

A

contains 10% proteins, ions, nutrients, waste products, and hormones, which are dissolved or suspended in water

47
Q

heart (blood flow)

A
  • is a double pump that sends blood to the lungs for oxygenation thru the pulmonary circuit and to the remainder of the body thru the systemic circuit
  • blood is received by the atria and is pumped into circulation by the ventricles
  • valves between the atria and ventricles include the tricuspid on the right and bicuspid on the left of the heart
  • semilunar valves are found at the entrances of the pulmonary trunk and the aorta
  • blood is supplied to the heart muscles (myocardium) by the coronary arteries
  • blood drains from the myocardium directly into the right atrium through the coronary sinus
48
Q

heart beat

A
  • has an intrinsic beat initiated by the sinoatrial node and transmitted along a conduction system through the myocardium
  • wave of electrical activity is measured by an ECG
  • cardiac cycle is the period from one end of the ventricular contraction to the end of the next ventricular contraction
  • contraction phase is systole and relaxation phase is diastole
49
Q

capillaries

A
  • the smallest of the vessels, are where the exchanges of water, nutrients and waste products take place between the blood and surrounding tissues
50
Q

systemic arteries

A
  • begins with the aorta which sends branches to all parts of the body
  • as arteries get farther away from the heart, the become thinner
  • the smallest arteries are arterioles
  • veins are parallel to arteries and are named the same
  • superior and inferior venae cavea are the large veins that empty into the right atrium of the heart
51
Q

vasoconstriction and vasodilation

A
  • results from contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the arterial walls
  • these changes influence blood pressure and blood distribution to the tissues
  • walls of the veins are thinner and less elastic, they
52
Q

arteries vs. veins

A
  • walls of the arteries are thick and elastic and they carry blood under high pressure
  • walls of the veins are thinner and less elastic than those of the arteries and they carry blood under lower pressure
53
Q

components of the respiratory system

A
  • nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs with their alveoli, diaphragm and muscles surrounding the ribs
  • respiration is controlled by the respiratory control center in the medulla of the brain
54
Q

respiratory system

A
  • supplies oxygen to the body and eliminated carbon dioxide
  • passageways between the nasal cavities and the alveoli conduct gases to and from the lungs
  • the upper passageways also serve to warm, filter, and moisten incoming air
  • the upper respiratory tubules are lined with cilia that help to trap debris and keep foreign substances from entering the lungs
55
Q

external respiration

A

-the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood through the alveoli

56
Q

internal respiration

A

-the exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells

57
Q

inhalation

A

-requires contraction of the diaphragm to enlarge the thoracic cavity and draw air into the lungs

58
Q

exhalation

A
  • is a passive process during which the lungs recoil as the respiratory muscles relax and the thorax decreases in size
59
Q

oxygen

A
  • most of the oxygen carried in the blood is bound to hemoglobin in RBC
  • O is released from hemoglobin as the concentration of O drops in the tissues
  • some carbon dioxide is carried in solution or bound to blood proteins, but most is converted to bicarbonate ions by carbonic anhydrase within RBCs
  • because this reaction also releases H ions, carbon dioxide is a regulator of blood pH
60
Q

Urinary System

A
61
Q

Urinary system: kidneys

A
  • filter the blood
  • functional units are the nephrons
  • they are small coiled tubes that filter waster material out of the blood brought to the kidney by the renal artery
  • actual filtration process occurs through the glomerulus in Bowman’s capsule of the nephron
  • filtration of the blood occurs through the glomerulus under the force of blood pressure
  • as the glomerular filtrate passes through the nephron, components needed by the body, such as water, glucose and ions leave the nephron by diffusion and reenter the blood
  • water is reabsorbed at the tubules of the nephron
  • final product produced by the millions of nephrons per kidney is urine
62
Q

Urinary system: ureters

A
  • are tubes that transport urine to the urinary bladder, where urine is stored before urination through the urethra to the outside
63
Q

Reproductive System

A
  • male and female sex organs are the testes and ovaries
  • 2 functions: production of gametes (sex cells) and production of hormones
  • these activities are under the control of tropic hormones from the pituitary gland
  • reproductive activity in women is cyclic but is continuos in men
  • gametes are formed by meiosis
64
Q

Male Reproductive System

A
  • spermatoza develop within the seminiferous tubules of each testis
  • the interstitial cells between the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone
  • this male hormone influences sperm cell development and also produces the male secondary sex characteristics like facial hair, body hair and voice deepening
  • once produced, sperm are matured and stored in the epididymis of each testis
  • during ejaculation the pathway for the sperm includes vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra
  • along the pathway are glands that produce the transport medium, semen
  • seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands
65
Q

Male: testicular activity

A
  • controlled by two anterior pituitary hormones
  • FSH- regulates sperm production
  • interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) or LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce testosterone
66
Q

digestive system

A
  • the alimentary canal (or digestive tube) consist of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus
  • accessory organs of digestion include: liver, pancreas and gallbladder
67
Q

process of breaking down food

A
  • food is ingested into the mouth, where it is mechanically broken down by the teeth and tongue in the process of mastication
68
Q

digestive system: saliva

A
  • produced by 3 pairs of salivary glands, lubricates and dilutes the chewed food
  • salvia contains an enzyme called amylase that starts digestion of complex carbohydrates
  • a ball of food called a bolus is formed
69
Q

process of breaking down food: esophagus

A
  • constrictive muscles of the pharynx force the food into the upper portion of the esophagus, and the food is swallowed
  • the esophagus is a narrow tube leading from the pharynx to the stomach
70
Q

digestive tract

A

-has 4 main layers, from innermost to outermost: the mucous membrane, the submucous layer, the muscular layer, and the serous layer

71
Q

digestive system: food enters stomach

A
  • food enters stomach where gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid that breaks down foods
  • stomach churns and mixes the bolus of food, turning into a soupy substance called chyme
  • the stomach also stores food and regulates the movement of food into the small intestine
72
Q

digestive system: digestion and absorption

A
  • occurs in the small intestines
  • food is acted on by various enzymes from the small intestine and pancreas by bile from the liver
  • pancreas also contributes water to dilute the chyme and bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acid from the stomach
  • nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestines
  • amino acids are from proteins and carbs and are absorbed into the blood
  • fats are absorbed into the lacteals and eventually added to the blood
  • all nutrients then enter the hepatic portal vein to be routed to the liver for decontamination
  • villi- increase the surface area of the intestinal wall
73
Q

digestive system: digestion and absorption

A
  • occurs in the small intestines
  • food is acted on by various enzymes from the small intestine and pancreas by bile from the liver
  • pancreas also contributes water to dilute the chyme and bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acid from the stomach
  • nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestines
  • amino acids are from proteins and carbs and are absorbed into the blood
  • fats are absorbed into the lacteals and eventually added to the blood
74
Q

small intestines consist of

A
  • duodenum, ileum and jejunum
75
Q

digestive system: large intestines

A
  • reabsorbs water and stores and eliminates undigested food
  • abundant bacteria, intestinal flora
  • 5 portions: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon and the rectum
  • opening for defecation is anus
76
Q

female reproductive system

A
  • each month, under the influence of FSH, several eggs ripen within the ovarian follicle in the ovary
  • estrogen, produced by the follicle initiates the preparation of the endometrium of the uterus for pregnancy
  • at 14 days of the cycle, surge or LH is released from the pituitary, which stimulates ovulation and the conversion of the follicle to the corpus luteum
  • the corpus luteum secretes the hormones progesterone and estrogen, which further stimulates development of the endometrium
  • if fertilization does occur, the corpus luteum remains functional
  • if fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and menstruation begins
77
Q

female reproductive system: fertilization

A
  • after ovulation, the egg is swept into the oviduct or fallopian tube
  • of fertilization occurs, it occurs while the egg is in the oviduct
  • the fertilized egg or zygote travels to the uterus and implants itself within the endometrium
  • in the uterus, the developing embryo is nourished by the placenta, which is formed by maternal and embryonic tissues
  • during pregnancy, hormones from the placenta maintain the endometrium and prepare the mammary glands for breast milk production

HESI (3 decks)

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